1) In 1671 Anton van Leeuwenhoek a Dutch cloth merchant constructed a microscope out of a magnifying glass and a specimen holder.
2) He began using the microscope to observe everyday objects as pepper, plant seeds and his own skin.
3) He observed water under his microscope and made the first discovery of single- cell living organisms.
4) As Leeuwenhoek and other scientist studied his discovery they had to discard long held ideas about biology.
5) During the 1500s and 1600s the microscope and numerous discoveries transformed the natural science and medicine as new tech and research resulted in vast knowledge.
6) This became known as the scientific revolution.
7) Philosophers applied scientific principles to the study of government and society.
8) They also emphasized the use of reason in the 2nd half of the 1700s.
9) They thought people should use reason to be enlightened and free themselves from ignorance and superstition.
10) They believed enlightened people could perfect themselves and society.
11) Due to this the 18 century is known as the Enlightenment.
12) During the renaissance a few people where curious to study the natural world.
13) Leonardo da Vinci detailed his scientific observation in a note book. (Flying machine, bicycle.)
14) By the late Renaissance scholars greatly expanded scientific knowledge and dev new approach to scientific study.
15) Aristotle a Greek Philosopher created logic. It dominated scientific reasoning in the middle ages.
16) Logic is a system of thought based on observation and a process of reasoning.
17) Between 1200 and 1700 scholars question ancient philosophies while some made observations and conducted experiments that disproved some accepted theories.
18) Mathematics was advanced by using Arabic numerals and it exposed errors in logic.
19) Gradually scholars dev a threefold to scientific study---the scientific method.
20) Experiments and observation----interpret the results----mathematics not logic is used to prove scientific theories from principles.
21) Nicolas Copernicus was a polish mathematician and astronomer.
22) In 1543 he published “on the revolutions of the Heavenly bodies” to challenge Ptolemy.
23) Ptolemy taught that the earth was the center of the universe and all heavenly bodies orbited it in perfect circles,
24) Copernicus used mathematics to calculate that the earth was not stationary but moved on its axis once a day.
25) He declared that the sun was at the center of the universe being orbited by the earth and planets in perfect circles.
26) Many educated people rejected his view because he did not have enough evidence to disprove Ptolemy.
27) In Western Europe all scientific knowledge and many religious teaching was based on logical arguments.
28) Scholars feared the whole human knowledge would become uncertain if their reasoning about the planets were wrong.
29) Scientists increasingly backed observations with mathematical calculation after Corperniculus.
30) Tycho Brahe a Danish astronomer built an observatory to study the planets in the late 1500s.
31) His assistant Johannes Kepler used their records to confirm Copernicus theories.
32) Kepler discovered that the planets did not orbit the sun in perfect circles.
33) In 1609 Kepler announced that planets orbited the sun in an ellipse.
34) In Italy, Galileo Galilee an astronomer used a telescope to observe the planets and stars.
35) Galileo’s observations disproved that the moon, planets and stars were all perfect, unchanging bodies.
36) The moon had a rough surface broken by a jagged mountain.
37) The sun had dark, changeable spots on its surface.
38) Jupiter had 4 moons orbiting it.
39) Galileo’s enemies convinced the Catholic Church to ban him from defending his new ideas and also condemn the work of Copernicus.
40) Galileo refused and was summoned by an inquiry.
41) Galileo declared that the earth stood motionless at the center of the universe before an inquisition out of fear for his life.
42) In 1687, Sir Isaac Newton an English mathematician published, “The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy” and invented calculus to prove his theories.
43) Newton’s law of gravity states that there is a force of attraction between objects that increases as the objects get closer.
44) Newton’s law of gravity explains that the moons gravity causes tides of the sea while that of the sun keeps the planet within their orbits.
45) Navigators and map makers used Newton’s works to make more precise charts.
46) Calculus was used to improved weapons such as guns and cannons.
47) The stream engine was built based on Newton’s idea years later.
48) During the 1500s and 1600s significant advances in medicine where made by scientist.
49) Some challenged the theories of Galen, a Greek physician whose work had dominated medicine in the middle age.
50) In the early 1500s, a Swiss physician, Paracelsus disproved Galen’s idea that chemicals change---one substance can be transformed into another.
51) He produced distilled water that he used as medicine.
52) Scholars studied the human body at the University of Padua in Italy.
53) In 1543, Andreas Vesalius, a professor of anatomy wrote “on the structure of the Human Body”
54) His accurate drawings corrected the errors in Galen’s work.
55) Traditionally doctors poured boiling oil into a wound to prevent it from infection. Ambroise pare’ dev an ointment that cud be used instead. He had formerly studied Vesalius’s textbook.
56) He developed a technique of closing up wounds with stitches.
57) In the early 1600s, William Harvey an Englishman showed that the heart acted as a pump to circulate blood through arteries and veins.
58) Formerly it was thought that the blood remain stationary.
59) In the 1700s doctors discovered the vaccine for small pox.
60) Scientific association where formed to exchange scientific knowledge.
61) Late 1600 and the 1700s is referred to us the age of reason.
62) Because Philosophers wanted to use reasons to discover natural laws that governed human behavior.
63) Philosophers reexamine society using the scientific method.
64) The 1640 English civil war lead Thomas Hobbes to publish “Leviathan” in 1651 when he came to the conclusion that people would have nasty, brutish and short life’s with no laws or government in a natural state.
65) To prevent this people had to enter into agreement with a leader---they gave up their freedoms and pledge to obedience while the ruler ensured peace and order.
66) A ruler with absolute power was the best form of government.
67) He insisted that once people entered a contract they could not rebel even if the ruler was a tyrant.
68) John Locke published Two Treatises on government in 1690.
69) He confirmed the purpose of gov’t to ensure order in society.
70) He also saw gov’t as a contract between the ruler and the ruled.
71) He thought people would cooperate with each other as they were basically reasonable.
72) Also rulers’ cud remain in power only by the consent of the people.
73) If a ruler was tyrannical he had broken the contract and thus the people cud forms a new government.
74) Also people had natural rights which a government had to protect---right to life, liberty and property.
75) Philosophes (French word for Philosopher) where writers and thinkers in France that expanded the idea of natural rights.
76) They urge religious toleration, freedom of speech and press, educations and humane treatment for the mentally ill.
77) They denounced slavery and cruel punishments for crimes
78) Physiocrats; a branch of philosophes searched for natural laws to explain economics
79) They opposed mercantilism, urged rulers to encourage farming and called for a free market; a market in which all goods can be bought and sold without restrictions.
80) Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Roseau formed their own ideas about the best way to organize a government.
81) They shared the basic beliefs of the Philosophes.
82) As a noble born, student of gov’t Baron de Montesquieu studied the works of Newton and Locke.
83) He published “The Spirit of laws” to discuss forms of government.
84) He discussed the structure of the English government in the mid 1700s as having an executive, legislature and Judiciary with their respective duties. This was not so in reality.
85) He thought that the jurisdiction of each branch should be carefully defined to ensure checks and balance.
86) His separation of powers influenced the constitution frames of the United States constitution.
87) Francois Marie Arouet( penname—Voltaire) was a middle class man known for his witty plays, novels and pamphlets attacking evil in society.
88) He fought for religious toleration and freedom of thought and praised English liberties and the works of Newton and Locke.
89) He favoured an “enlightened Monarch” to him---a monarch who studied the science of gov’t and protected the basic rights (natural rights) of people.
90) Jean Jacques Rousseau came from a poor unhappy home.
91) He quarrelled with other philosophes as he fell out of place with them.
92) He believed human nature was basically good only being corrupted by society.
93) He called for the abolishment of all titles, ranks and nobility as all people where equal.
94) He admired the “noble savage” who lived in a natural state free from the influences of civilisation. He realized that people cud not return to the natural state.
95) He described an ideal society in “The Social Contract”
96) People would form communities and make a contract with each other and not a ruler. People gave up their freedoms for the general will and accepted the decision of the community after a vote. Equality in the will of the majority.
97) In the mid 1700s enlighten ideas spread across Europe as philosophers travelled and corresponded with each other and European rulers, their ideas became more generally accepted.
98) Denis Diderot a French philosophe supervised the publication of an encyclopaedia—classified dictionary of the Sciences, Arts and Occupations--- that summarized human knowledge of his time.
99) Between 1751 –1772, he assembled the 35 volume encyclopaedia hoping it would free people from prejudice.
100) Voltaire, Montesquieu, Rousseau and other philosphes contributed articles while others wrote on newly explored lands.
101) Diagrams where used to show advancement in printing, spinning, medicine and other fields.
102) In France, the Catholic Church and government censors banned the Encyclopaedia; it was read by educated people across Europe.
103) More news papers and journal where published in the 1700s as more people cud read and write.
104) Learn societies organized public lectures and published reports.
105) Middle class men met in coffee shops to discuss latest news in science and politics.
106) Popular songs helped spread enlightenment ideas.
107) Wealthy women in France held salons or informal gatherings, where writers, musician, painters and philosophes present their works and exchanged ideas.
108) Salons begun in the 1600s when a group of noble women met to discuss poetry readings, only witty, intelligent and well read people where invited.
109) Madame de Geoffrins a middle class woman is noted for holding salons at least once a week.
110) Salons helped shaped the taste and manners of enlightenment.
111) Some women acted as patrons for artists and writers. Louise de Warens supported Rousseau and his family.
112) Many women produced their own poetry and novels.
113) A few had an education in Science. Emilie du Chatetlet---physicist and mathematician. She translated Newton’s work from Latin to French.
114) Some rulers adopted policies and economic conditions in their countries hoping to improve socio-economic conditions.
115) The used such ideas to centralize power and reduce the privileges of nobles.
116) In Austria, Maria Theresa passed laws to limit serfdom, while her son Joseph abolished serfdom.
117) He permitted freedom of the press, banned torture and ended religious persecution.
118) He gave equal rights to Jews and limited the power of the Catholic Church.
119) His successors reversed his reform after his death in 1790.
120) Most enlighten monarchs did nothing to change the social structure based on inequality and serfdom.
121) Catherine the Great of Russia made efforts to limit torture and introduce religious toleration.
122) Frederick the Great of Prussia codified Prussian laws, allowed religious freedom and encouraged elementary education for Prussian children.
123) Artists tried to find laws that gave order to their work. They were influenced by classical Greek art.
124) Classical styles also influenced European architecture. In the 1600s building where ornate and elaborate, in the 1700s architects returned to the simple elegance of Greek styles.
125) Two Germans among the most important composers of the enlightened period where, Johann Sebastian Bach and George Frederick Handel.
126) Franz Joseph Haydn and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart brought music to its height in the late 1700s.
127) Mozart wrote more than 600 musical works---symphonies, operas and church music--- before his death at age 35.
QUESTIONS
1) Identify: Nicolas Copernicus, Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler, and Galileo Galilee.
2) Define: Scientific method, law of gravity.
3) Why was mathematics important to the scientific method?
4) Give two reasons why scholars challenged the ideas of Copernicus.
5) What did Galileo’s observations through the telescope reveal?
6) How did Newton think the universe worked?
7) Describe on way each of the following contributed to medical knowledge: Paracelsus, Andreas Vesalius, and Amboise Pare’, William Harvey.
8) Identify: Denis Diderot, Joseph II, Johann Sebastian Bach, and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart.
9) Define: Salon
10) What subjects did Diderot’s Encyclopaedia emphasize the most?
11) Describe three reforms introduced by enlightened Monarchs.
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