PLEASE TAKE NOTE THAT THE SOURCE OF INFORMATION FOR THIS NOTES IS THE ADULT EDUCATION CENTER OF THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA PSYCHOLOGY 102 TEXTBOOK. TO RESPECT THE COPYRIGHT OF THE MATERIAL DO NOT USE IT FOR FINACIAL GAIN.
1) Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour due to experience (Coon, 2001)
2) Reinforcement is any event that will increase the probability that our behaviour will occur again. It is a key to the learning process
3) A response is any identifiable behaviour that can be observed externally or that can occur internally.
4) They can be observable actions such as blinking, combing your hair or locking a door. They can also be internal such as a faster heart beat.(Coon, 2001)
5) Antecedents are events that happen before response. Consequences are effects that follow after a response.
6) The three types of learning are by, association or classical conditioning, reinforcement or operant conditions and observational behaviour or social learning.
7) Association---associating fear, reinforcement-----receiving a reward afterwards, observational behaviour----observing the behaviour of others.
8) Factors that affect learning are: motivation, intelligence. Others are maturation, physical condition of the learner, good physical working conditions, active practice and repetition, Distributed learning, Teaching Methods and aids, timing of the teaching and learning experience, education and previous knowledge, nature of the teacher, feedback of results, the level of attention.
9) Motivation---the greater and clearer you motive to learn the stronger the effort and interest you show in learning.
10) Intrinsic motivation occurs when the individual enjoys what he/she is learning and so learns better.
11) Extrinsic motivation occurs when other forces urge an individual to learn.(e.g. for good grades)
12) Intelligence provides the ability of understand things, seeing the relationship between things, reasoning and judging correctly and critically.
13) Maturation is when the individual has to attain both physical and psychological maturity to understand some topics.
14) Physical conditions of the learner deals with the learner being physically challenged or handicapped and thus not able to achieve good performance and vice versa.
15) Good physical working conditions show that comfortable surroundings and absence of disruptions promote effective learning.
16) Active practices and repetition deals with rehearsing several times after learning.
17) Distributed learning deals with spreading what is to be learnt over a conducive period of time. It includes the avoidance of learning for long periods of time as learning capacity decreases with time.
18) Teaching methods should be interactive where as the use of aids such as charts or diagrams provide interactive teaching and promote effective learning.
19) Previous knowledge promotes transfer of learning from an old to a new situation and also affects one’s understanding and acceptance of new ideas in a new learning situation.
20) The Nature of the teacher affects learning since teachers who are warm, open and respect the views of learners instead of criticising them encourage effective learning.
21) Feedback of results helps a learner know his shortcomings and correct them. It also serves as a motivation.
22) Paying attention to what is being taught promotes effective learning.
23) Reasons for punishment----correctional, retributive, deterrent.
24) Punishment is the process in which a response is followed with pain or an otherwise negative event; or when a response is followed with a removal of a positive reinforcement.
25) A punisher is any event that decreases the probability or frequency of response it follows (Coon, 2001).
26) A punisher decrease behaviour while reinforcement increases behaviour.
27) The dangers of punishment, it can be reinforcing to the punisher as the intensity of punishment increases and leads to abuse, it has a slowing down effect on the person being punished as such the person may stop altogether instead of reducing something he/she is being punished for, in this case something that is required for everyday normal living----talking, running ect, it can also make an individual being punished hate the person administering punishment or channel their aggression to their subordinates, sometimes the punisher may not be effective and rather reinforce the behaviour---criticism trap, punishment does not teach an individual how to act appropriately but suppresses inappropriate behaviour.
28) Guidelines for using punishment; Find out the alternative ways of controlling behaviour and apply them if they exist, make sure you apply punishment immediately after an inappropriate behaviour, use the minimum punishment available or risk the effectiveness of the punisher, separate the inappropriate behaviour from the person as a result do not despise the person being punished, make sure you punish every time an improper behaviour occurs as a result tolerate no exceptions, you must not be surprised when you see anger, you must have some kindness and respect when you punish.
29) Memory is an active system that receives, stores or organises, alters and recovers information (Baddeley, 1996).
30) Types of memory; sensory memory, short term memory, long term memory.
31) Sensory memory picks information from senses around as, it last about 1-2 seconds.
32) Short term memory acts as a storehouse for small amounts of information---information is stored here by paying attention and rehearsing.
33) Long term memory is a place where memory is kept for a long period of time; sometimes as long as a person’s life.
34) Rehearsal means mentally reviewing a material
35) Forgetting is the inability to retrieve memory that has been formed.
36) Reasons why we forget; failure to form memory, insufficient cues, failure to use memory, interference which is the tendency of new memories to impair our ability to retrieve old memories and vice versa, Suppression: it is a conscious effort to put something out of memory, Repression: unconscious effort to force something out of memory.
37) Psychologists have recommended Self-Regulated learning as a means of improving memory.
38) It includes; setting specific learning goals, plan a learning strategy, be your own teacher ,monitor your progress, reinforce yourself, evaluate your progress and goals, take corrective action.
39) How to improve memory: Get feedback of what you are learning, Practice recitation, rehearse what you have learnt (this is done mentally not audibly), Practise selective reading (by highlighting main points), Over learn the material, Sleep right after studies (it reduces interference), review what you have learnt.
40) Importance of motivation: it connects observable behaviour to internal states, it accounts for variability in behaviour, it explains perseverance despite adversity, and it connects biology to behaviour, it energies us and makes as active, it gives us direction in life, it aids performance, Primary motives aid survival.
41) Motivation is the internal sate or condition that activates and gives direction to our thoughts feelings and actions. (Lahey, 2003)
42) Motivation is a process, in initiates our intentions, it sustains the actions initiated, and it directs the actions towards a desired goal.
43) It usually begins with a need leading to a drive which activates a response designed to achieve a goal.
44) Need---internal deficiency, drive---an energized motivational state, response----an action or series of actions, goal----the target of motivational behaviour.
45) Beyond internal needs to incentives; pull of external stimuli and push of internal needs. The pull exerted by a goal is called its incentive value---a goal’s appeal beyond its ability to fill a need.
46) Primary motives are based on biological needs we require for survival----hunger, thirst, self preservation or avoidance of pain, air, sleep, elimination of waste from our bodies, regulation of our body temperature.
47) Primary drives maintain the equilibrium or homeostasis of our bodies. There are ideal states in the body for body temperature, concentration of glucose in the blood, and blood pressure.
48) If the body deviates from these ideal levels, automatic reactions restore the equilibrium.
49) The hypothalamus regulates many motives and emotions including hunger; it is located in the forebrain.
50) The lever and upper small intestines can regulate or detect blood sugar levels.
51) Importance of the hypothalamus in regulating hunger; it detects and regulates sugar levels in the body; it detects the amount of fat in the body as such it manages body weight.
52) Psychological aspect of hunger include: Maturation and learning (socialization), emotions( anxiety—eat more, depressed—eat less), incentives, obesity
53) Factors that influence obesity: diet, emotions, genetics or traits, inadequate or no regular exercise.
54) Human sex drive is influenced by: the mind, the culture we find ourselves in, our emotional state
55) Stimulus motives are needed for stimulation and information such as curiosity, exploration, manipulation and physical contact.
56) They are not necessary for survival.
57) Arousal refers to the activation of the body and the central nervous system. At zero---Dead, low----asleep, moderate-----during normal daily activities, high-----excited, panic.
58) People who are high on sensation turn to be; bold, are independent, value change, report having more sexual partners and more likely to smoke.
59) People who are low on sensation turn to be; orderly, nurturing, giving and enjoy the company of others.
60) The ideal level of arousal for performance is moderate.
61) How to cope with test anxiety: rehearse, Preparation, Restructuring thought (thinking positively), relaxation.
62) Test anxiety refers to high levels of arousal and worry that seriously impairs test performance.
63) Secondary motives do not have any connection with biological drives but are purely learned or acquired.
64) They are related to affiliation, approval, status, security and achievement.
65) The need for achievement is the desire to excel or meet some internalized standard of excellence (McClelland, 1961).
66) People with this need; enjoy challenges and avoid goals that are too easy, endeavour to do well, do not succumb to failure, more likely to earn better grades as students, likely to get promotions and often peruse carriers as entrepreneurs.
67) People who desire to have power want their importance to be visible (they want to prove to others clearly and without any reasonable doubt that they are important), they spend a lot of money on expensive clothes, exploit relationships (relationship of convenience).
68) Need for power is the desire to have social impart or control over others.
69) People low on need for achievement are; motivated strongly by the desire to avoid failure, they set low goal everyone can achieve or goals that are too high and impossible to achieve, more likely to quite when they face difficulties.
70) Ryan and Deci (2000) say the need for achievement is driven by either intrinsic motivation or extrinsic motivation or both.
71) Extrinsic motivation is based on external rewards while intrinsic motivation is based on internal pleasure and gratification in accomplishing a particular goal.
72) The key to success is drive and determination(Talent is natured by dedication and hard work), commitment of parents to expose their children to different activities, intensive practice and expect coaching, Self confidence(the believe in once self that something can be achieved)
73) Ways of improving self confidence by Druckman and Bjork (1994): set specific and challenging goals that are attainable, do not rush, learn before you prefect, get expert advice, get support and encouragement from others, and learn from professionals.
74) In anxious situations and painful experiences people turn to affiliate with others, others affiliate for friendship and in event of chronic illment.
75) According to Abraham Maslow our motives are organised in a hierarchy.
76) Physiological needs----safety needs-----love and Belonging Needs-----Esteem Needs( lower—respect for others, need for status, fame, glory, recognition, attention, reputation, appreciation, dignity, dominance and higher-----self respect, confidence, competence, achievement, mastery, independence and freedom)-----Self actualization.
77) Primary or physiological needs and secondary or security needs.
78) Primary needs---air, water, food, sleep, excretion, shelter
79) Characteristic of self actualization(based on Jones and Crandall, 1986); you must be dedicated to a mission beyond your personal selfish interest in life, believe that people are essentially good and trustworthy, show love to others even though you may dislike their behaviour, feel adequate to deal with the challenges of life, accept your weakness, don’t depend on the approval of others by being yourself, are able to express your feelings even when they are unpopular, are able to accept all your emotions even negative ones, are not afraid to fail.
80) Intrinsically motivated people work harder and respond to challenges by even working harder; they enjoy their work more and perform creatively and effectively.
81) Extrinsically motivated people work for promotion, praise, salary, conditions of work ect.
82) Intrinsic motivation fuels achievement rather than extrinsic motivation that ends when the external reward ends.
83) Extrinsic rewards can be given when the behaviour occurs infrequently, or if the intrinsic motivation for the behaviour is deemed to be too little.
84) Praise should be given to a child if the child was successful by his/her own effort and not talent or ability, if the praise is sincere and does not suggest the controlling of the child, if it doesn’t compare the child to other children, when the child has been successful knowing that he/she is achieving a standard that has been set for him/her by his/her parents.
85) Sensation is the immediate response in the brain caused by excitation of a sensory organ. (Coon ,2001)
86) Perception is the mental process of organising sensations into meaningful patterns. (Coon ,2001)
87) The five main senses: sight, hearing, smell, touch, taste.
88) Stimulus is converted into neural impulses for the brain to understand.
89) Attributes of our senses; they are a window to the world as we are made more aware of our surroundings by them, they are converted to neural impulses to enable the brain understand, our senses are selective and we tend to give more attention to important things, they are adaptive
90) Characteristics of things that get more of our attention; they are usually more intense, louder, brighter, larger, repetitive.
91) Factors that influence perception include motivation; as such students who are hungry are more likely to interpret pictures which are not clear as food, males who are sexually aroused perceive females as being physically attractive, People who are anxious are likely to interpretate sentences which are not clear as threatening, children from poor socioeconomic backgrounds are more likely to estimate the size of a coin as being big than children from higher income backgrounds.
92) Other factors are: learning experience of people in different cultures(socialization), Age, religious beliefs, educational background(level of education), your values( how you where brought up)
93) Gestalt Psychologist assert that the following can cause the formation of an image; nearness(stimulus that are near each other tend to be grouped together in perception), similarity (stimulus that are similar in size, shapes, colour turn to be grouped together), closure (join pieces of information that are disconnected in order to perceive whole forms), contiguity, common region (stimuli that are found within a common region or areas tend to be seen as a group), continuity (visual elements that permit lines, curves or movements to continue in a direction already established tend to be grouped together).
94) Perceptual constancies are whereby we believe something does not change even though we view it from different angles.
95) There are 4 types of perceptive constancies :( Brightness constancies, colour constancy) ---do not change under different light conditions, size constancy----familiar objects do not change in perceived size at different distance, Shape constancy.
96) An illusion occurs when you mind incorrectly interprets stimulus patterns.
97) Illusions fool us by creating monocular depth cues.
98) Typical illusions become more likely under the following conditions; when the stimulus is unclear, when information is missing, when the elements are combine in unusual ways, when familiar patterns are not present.
99) An eye witness is someone who saw an event and can give evidence about it.
100) An eye witness report is a report by someone who was a first hand observer to an event and that report is needed to find out more facts about the event.
101) Some factors affecting the accuracy of an eye witness report; stress----weapon focus(the tendency to focus ones attention on the attackers weapon), the time period of exposure to the event----short time, the way eyewitnesses are questioned, Attitudes and expectations, Interference from post event information( filling gaps to make story believable), the confidence of the eyewitness-----can be over-confident, colour perception( monochromatic light alters colour)
102) Some factors to minimize errors in eyewitness testimony during line-up; train police interviewers(eye witness must first offer their own uninterrupted recollection of the event, interviewers can then jog the memory), remind the witness that the suspect may or may not be in the parade----a blank line up could be used first, make eyewitness respond yes or no to a sequence of people, Avoid situations where a witness has to stop, think and analytically compare faces as accurate identifications turn to be automatic and effortless, do not let the line up be too contrasting where only one person looks like the culprit.
103) Ways of becoming a better eyewitness; Do not forget that perceptions are developed from reality; ask questions like is what I am seeing accurate, can there be a another way of interpreting what I am seeing, Be aware of perceptual sets such as labels and stereotyping (don’t judge people based on where they live, their religion or ethnic background), be aware that emotions and motives have influence on perception since you may be convinced by your own interests, needs, desires and emotions. Be attentive and pay attention to others and your surroundings.
104) Ways of improving the accuracy of your perception; break perceptual habits and interrupt habits that you have become used to(do something new for a change), develop the habit of testing reality once a while in your life,
105) Test reality in the following ways; ask questions, seek clarification, identify other sources of information you have, look out for extraordinary experiences.
106) Reasons why people form interpersonal relationships; Friendship, social support, search for approval, to alleviate our fears and anxieties
107) Friendship is the first relationship we form outside the family
108) Some characteristics of friendship; Companionship---share similar values, Respect---work together to resolve differences, Acceptance, Help---support and sharing, Trust, Loyalty, Mutuality, Reciprocity.
109) Intimate partnership includes; sexual desire, sexual expression, greater demand for exclusiveness, deeper levels of caring.
110) How to make friends; find people with similar interest to your own, be a good listener, take risks by making new friends
111) How to be a good friend; be trustworthy, disclose yourself, be supportive and kind, develop your capacity for intimacy, don’t expect perfection
1. Some reasons for friendship; Physical proximity----we are generally attracted to people whom we have frequent contact with, physically attractiveness-----the halo effect( the tendency to generalize a favourable impression to unrelated personal characteristics)
2. • Because of the halo effect we assume that attractive people are likable, intelligent, warm, witty, mentally healthy and socially skilled(Feingold,1992)
3. • Advantages of being physically beautiful; they are less lonely, less socially anxious, more popular, socially skilled.
4. • Other Factors that influence attraction; competence, similarity( age, interest, attitudes, beliefs), self disclosure
5. • Self Disclosure involves revealing personal information that we ordinarily would not reveal because of the risk involved.
6. • Over disclosure is self disclosure that exceeds what is appropriate for a relationship or social situation. It gives rise to suspicion and reduces attraction.
7. • Love includes; trust, caring, respect, loyalty, interest and concern for the other partner.
8. • Sex brings excitement and passion to a relationship; it adds fascination and pleasure to a relationship.
9. • Commitment is characterized by; responsibility, reliability and faithfulness.
10. • According to Robert Sternberg, love is composed of; intimacy---feeling of closeness we have for someone we love, passion (romance, attraction and sexuality) and commitment.
11. • He asserts that these three elements can be enlarged, diminished and combined in different ways.
12. intimacy alone =liking
14. passion alone =infatuation
16. commitment alone =empty love
18. Intimacy + passion =romantic love
20. Passion + commitment = fatuous love
22. Intimacy +commitment =compassionate love
24. intimacy + passion + commitment =consummate love
26. • Some challenges in relationships; Self Disclosure, Unequal or premature commitment, Unrealistic expectations(when you are expecting your partner to change, when you believe that your partner has the same opinions, interest, priorities and goals as you),When you become competitive, when you become jealous,
27. • Secure attachment is characterized by: caring, intimacy, Supportiveness and understanding.
28. • People with Avoidant attachment; redraw when the relationship is going through rough times, suspicious and aloof, sceptical about love, see others as unreliable or overly eager to commit to a relationship, get nervous when people are getting too emotional close, avoid intimacy.
29. • People with Ambivalent Attachment; regard themselves as misunderstood and unappreciated, seeing friends and lovers as unreliable and are not ready to commit themselves to lasting relationships, worrying that their romantic partners don’t really love them or may leave them, have doubts about their partners dependability and trustworthiness although they want to be extremely close.
30. • Successful Relationships; Good communication skills---are not always verbal(non verbal---looking at or away, leaning forward or backward, smile or frown, touch, eye contact, proximity),Self Disclosure, Listening and feedback(qualities of a good listener: Empathy, warmth, respect, Genuineness), Conflict resolution----(find out what each partner wants, identify various alternatives for getting what each person wants, decide how to negotiate, solidify the agreements, review and renegotiate), ability to ask for and give support.
31. • Ending a relationship----give the relationship a fair chance before breaking up, be fair and honest, be tactful and compassionate, and if you are the rejected person give yourself time to resolve your anger and pain as such do not rush into another relationship.
32. • Wellness is a choice to assume responsibility for the quality of your life.
33. • Health can be defined as the general condition of the body or mind, especially in terms of the presence or absence of illnesses, injuries, or impairments.
34. • There are at least 6 categories of wellness; Physical wellness-----eating well, exercising, avoiding harmful habits, making responsible decisions about sex, learning about and recognizing the symptoms of disease, getting regular medical and dental checkups and taking steps to avoid injuries.
35. • Emotional wellness includes; optimism, trust, self esteem, self confidence, self control, satisfying relationships, ability to share feelings.
36. • Intellectual wellness; openness to new ideas, capacity to question and think critically, motivation to master new skills, having a sense of humour, having a sense of creativity and curiosity
37. • Spiritual wellness; have a set of guiding beliefs, principles and values that give meaning and purpose to your life, have the capacity for love, compassion, forgiveness, altruism, joy and fulfilment.( it suppresses cynicism, anger, fear, anxiety, self absorption and pessimism.
38. • Interpersonal and social wellness; having mutual loving and supportive people in your life, learning good communication skills, developing the capacity for intimacy, participate and contributing to your community, country and the world.
39. • Environmental and Planetary wellness ;(egs of environmental threats; ultraviolet radiation in sunlight, Air and water pollution, lead in old house paint, second-hand tobacco smoke in indoor air.
40. • Why people don’t seek help; to prevent others from knowing their problems, afraid of what their own friends may say or think, may not know who to go for help, suspicious that they may be force for treatment without consent.
41. • Psychological health is the presence of wellness.
42. • Factors affecting psychological health: Realism, Acceptance---ready to accept yourself and others(feel good about yourself, what you are capable of doing, roles you are given to play, optimistic about what you can expect from people and ready to interact with people who are not ready to change), Autonomy---(not afraid of expressing your opinions though others may disapprove, find guidance from you own self, values and feelings, act because they choose to and not because they are driven or pressured), Creativity.
43. • Ways of growing psychologically, develop an adult identity( see themselves realistically and can access their weaknesses and strengths without relying on the opinions of others, appreciate what they share in common with other and see themselves as unique), developing intimacy---(sharing, open communication, long term commitment and love), develop values and purpose in your life, dealing with your anger
44. • Stress is an event or situations that cause people to fell tension, pressure or negative emotions as anxiety and anger or Stress is our body’s response to events or situation around us.
45. • Psychologically stress is a process that involves a person’s interpretation and response to a threatening event or the body’s reaction to any change that requires an adjustment or response.
46. • Characteristics of Stress: it is normal, often experience because of problems or extreme fear pertaining to physical threat, it can have both negative and positive effects, if not managed can become chronic and lead to both physical and mental illness.
47. • Some myths about stress: stress is the same for everybody, stress is always bad for you, stress is inevitable, the most popular techniques for reducing stress are the best ones, no symptoms means no stress, only major symptoms of stress require attention.
48. • Stressors are the circumstances that cause stress. They can be categorized into three groups; catastrophic events, major life changes and daily hassles. In addition thinking about unpleasant past events and anticipating unpleasant future events.
49. • Daily hassles occur more frequently. They can be grouped into; College Stressors (Academic, interpersonal, time and financial) stressors, job-related stressors(working overtime, worries about performance, salary and job security, interaction with bosses, co-workers and customers), social stressors(gender, ethnic minorities, economic disadvantage, disability),Environmental stressors(intrusive noises, smells or sights, natural disasters, industrial accidents, living in poor/violent neighbourhoods ), internal stressor(unrealistic expectation, physical/emotional state).
50. • A Canadian scientist by name Hans Selye proposed a three stage model of the stress response, he termed general adaptation syndrome. They are alarm, resistance, exhaustion.
51. • How stress affects the body; heart beats faster, blood flow to brain and muscles increase, muscles tension increases, digestion stops, faster breathing to supply muscles with oxygen.
52. • Symptoms of body stress; moody and hypersensitivity, restlessness and anxiety, depression, anger and resentment, lack of confidence, apathy, urge to laugh or cry at inappropriate times.
53. • How stress can affect your body physically; headaches, digestive problems, muscle tension and pain, sleep disturbances, fatigue, chest pain, irregular heartbeat, high blood pressure, weight gain or loss, asthma or shortness of breath, skin problems, decreased sex drive.
54. • How stress can affect your behaviour; eating more or less, sleeping too much or too little, isolating yourself from others, neglecting your responsibility, increasing alcohol and drug use, nervous habits(Teeth grinding or jaw clenching), overdoing activities as exercising or shopping, over reacting to unexpected problems.
55. • The sympathetic nerves are part of the nervous system which is active during stress or danger. It pumps adrenaline into the blood stream during danger.
56. • Stress compromises the ability to fight off diseases and infections, causes difficulty to conceive a baby, stunts growth in children
57. • Long term stress can cause or worsen the following: Heart attack, Hypertension, stroke, cancer, diabetes, depression, obesity, substance abuse, ulcers, memory loss, insomnia, infertility.
58. • The relationship between stress and ill health is that, it is a risk factor to developing diseases and breaks down the immune system.
59. • Stress management simply means identifying and analyzing the problem related to stress and applying a variety of effective measures to alter either the source of stress or the experience of stress.
60. • The aim of stress management is to help the individual function at his/her optimum level in a healthy and positive manner.
61. • Ways to manage stress; Exercise, good nutrition, avoid excessive use of alcohol, avoid smoking(smoking can cause impotency, dental diseases, premature skin wrinkling, premature baldness and reduced fertility), rest, encourage yourself, learn to say no if you don’t want to do something or can’t do it, Time management(don’t be overcommitted and procrastinating, set realistic goals and set your priorities right, budget enough time for what you want to do and do your favourite task first, give yourself a break, delegate others), cultivate a sense of humour(elevates heart rate, aids digestion, eases pain), think constructively----consider positive solutions to your problem, support from others, seek professional help.
62. • Cortiso increases blood pressure and frees fatty acids into the bloodstream.
63. • First report of HIV/AIDS in the world was in USA---1981 and in Ghana-----1986.
64. • Some varieties of sexual behaviour; Erotic fantasy and masturbation, touching and foreplay, oral-genital stimulation, anal sex and sexual intercourse.
65. • Paraphilias are problematic sexual behaviours as inflicting pain on others, making obscene phone calls, having sex with children and peeping into the homes of strangers.
66. • HIV is transmitted ; sexually, blood-borne, implacental, by sharing infected sharp and piercing objects
67. • Behaviour change communication involves the ABCD approach to prevent the spread of STD’s.
68. • A---abstain, B-----be faithful, C-----use a condom, D----don’t share sharp and piercing objects.
69. • Ways of finding healthy sexual values; know yourself and work towards accepting your sexual needs and orientation, don’t be bound by popular sexual standards you are personally uncomfortable with(from friends and media),examine what your religion has to say about sexual matters, think ahead of various sexual situations and scenarios and anticipate how you will react to them, take opportunities to clarify your sexual values( read educational books, groups discussions and classes)
70. • Characteristics of responsible adult sexual behaviour; they must be open and honest communication( what does sex mean to either partner),agreement on sexual activities(no use of force),sexual privacy(do not reveal private information about the relationship to others, using contraception(to prevent unwanted babies), safer sex(be honest about health conditions),sober sex, taking responsibility.
71. • A Drug is any substance, natural or artificial, other than food that by its chemical nature alters structure or function in the living organism.
72. • Illicit drugs are drugs which are unlawful to posses and use.
73. • Drug misuse refers to the use of prescribe drugs in greater amounts than, or for purposes other than those prescribed by a physician or dentist.
74. • Drug abuse refers to the use of a substance in a manner, amount or situation such that the uses of the drug possess social, legal, occupational, psychological or physical problems.
75. • Characteristics of Drug Dependency: Developing tolerance to the substance(increasing dosage as time goes on), experiencing redrawal (going for the drug when its concentration decreases in your blood), Expressing a persistent desire to cut down or regulate substance use(mostly unsuccessful), taking the substance in larger amounts or over a longer period than was originally intended, Spending a great deal of time obtaining the substance using the substance or recovering from its effects, giving up or reducing important social, school, work or recreational activities because of the substance use, continuing to use the substance in spite of recognizing that it is contribution to a psychological or physical problem.
76. • Drug addiction is characterized by; frequent use of the drug, great determination to acquire and use the drug, taking about the drug most often, zeal to know more about the drug.
77. • Characteristics associated with addictive behaviour; There is reinforcement(it is made stronger by another addictive behaviour), there is compulsion or craving, there is loss of control, there is escalation, there are negative consequences(health, legal, financial, academic, personal relationship, job) problems,
78. • Characteristics of drug free people; they perceive drugs as risky, usually have positive self esteem, self control, social competence, optimism, academic achievement, regular church attendance, people from strict homes against substance abuse, people who feel supported and cared for.
79. • Why some people use drugs; Peer pressure, to imitate adult models who use drugs, to experiment, to reduce unpleasant psychological feeling as anxiety, depression and feeling of worthlessness, to enhance bodily sensations, to increase psychological and physical performance by reducing unpleasant bodily sensations like pain, insomnia, tiredness and physiological needs like sleep and hunger, To transcend the limit of their body or do what they would not normally be able to do.
80. • Caution in using memory enhancing drugs: psychoactive drugs may impair memory eventually behavior and lead to death, uncontrolled dosages of may lead to death and disrupt memory, use of alcohol leads to easy memory loss.
81. • Commonly abused drugs; the Opiods (morphine and heroin), Sedative-hypnotics (Barbiturates and benzodiazepines), Stimulants (Cocaine, amphetamines), Hallucinogens (lysergic acid diethylamide, mescaline), Cannabis (marijuana and Hashish) and Inhalants (glue, gasoline, aerosols.
82. • Heroin was introduced as a cough suppressant and non-addictive substitute for morphine in 1898
83. • Opium’s may suppress coughing, reduce movement of the intestines and induce a state of psychological indifference.
84. • Morphine is a potent pain reliever.
85. • Withdrawal symptoms of opioids include; kicking movements in the legs, anxiety, insomnia, nausea, sweating, cramps, vomiting, diarrhoea, and fever.
86. • Abrupt withdrawal symptoms of Barbiturates; shaking, insomnia, anxiety, convulsion, delirium, and death if suddenly discontinued.
87. • Benzodiazepines (valium and Librium) are used in the treatment of anxiety, insomnia and epilepsy.
88. • Cocaine is used medically to produce anaesthesia for surgery of the nose, throat and to contract blood vessels and reduce bleeding during surgery.
89. • “Crack” is a highly addictive smokable form of cocaine.
90. • Amphetamines where introduced in the 1930’s for the treatment of colds and hay fever. Today they are restricted to hyperactivity in children, narcolepsy
91. • Amphetamines heighten alertness, elevate mood, decrease fatigue and the need for sleep
92. • Withdrawal from amphetamines particularly if the drug has been injected intravenously produces severe depression.
93. • Hallucinogens are occasionally used in the treatment of dying patients, drug abusers and alcoholics. They have no apparent redrawal symptoms.
94. • Cannabis sativa is the source of both marijuana and hashish. Effects are a state of relaxation, accelerated heart rate, perceived slowing of time, heightened sense of hearing, taste, touch and smell.
95. • Cannabis has been used experimentally for treating alcoholism, seizures, pain, and glaucoma. Its active ingredient is delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC).
96. • Inhalants depress the central nervous system when sniffed. Effects of using inhabitants are headache, nausea, and drowsiness. Sniffing inhalants can impair vision, judgment and muscle and reflex control.
97. • Isoamyl nitrite has legitimate medical functions as a blood vessel dilator.
98. • Some caution before drug use; know the risk involved, is using the drug well-matched with your goals, know your ethical beliefs about drug use, know the financial cost involved, know your reason for drug use and whether it is the best option
99. • Activities to consider to avoid or reduce drug use; introduce yourself to something new, exercise, visit a counsellor, focus on areas in your life where you are competent, look for new friends, join religious groups
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