1. In the 1300s the commerce of the Italian city-states depended largely on trade with other Europeans cities.
2.Merchant’s ships transported good along the Mediterranean and Atlantic coasts.
3.Portugal and Spain began searching for new trade routes in the 1400s.
4.They sponsored man voyages of discovery.
5.Advancement in tech helped to make voyages of exploration possible.-----travellers reports as that of Marco Polo, info from Arab geographers, mapmakers had more accurate maps on land and sea, latitudes where included, direction of ocean currents helped navigators.
6.Sailor calculated ships latitude using astrolabe an instrument that measured the position of the stars.
7.At the time there was no instrument to measure longitude, it cud only be estimated
8.Europeans improved the magnetic compass to detect locations even when out of sight of land.
9. “Ocean voyage worthy ships” where built, Portuguese----three masted caravel---carried more sails, had more room for cargo and food supplies.
10.Europeans----Lateen or triangular sail---stern rudder allowed ships to sail closely into the wind. It was borrowed from the Arabs.
11.Because voyages of exploration where very expensive emerging national monarchs sponsored them in the 1400s and 1500s.
12. Through them they hoped to increase trade and build empires.
13.Individuals participated due to curiosity, adventure and wealth. Devout Christians wished to spread the gospel,
14. Portuguese led the way in the voyages o exploration.
15.They had been at a disadvantage in trade with Asia bcos Portugal faced the Atlantic Ocean and not the Mediterranean Sea.
16. Most spices and other goods from India were traded by merchants to the eastern Mediterranean.
17. Portugal’s rulers in the 1400s aimed at increasing the nation’s wealth, they supported voyages in search of AU
18. The wanted to share in the rich spice trade by bypassing the Italian and Muslim middlemen.
19. Prince Henry (1394 to 1460) encouraged early Portuguese explorations. He formed an informal school for sailors at Sagres.
20.There astronomers, geographers and mathematicians shared their learning with Portuguese sea captains and pilots.
21. At first Portuguese attempted creating new trade routes by conquering coastal cities in North Africa, however the Saharan caravan that that brought gold from West Africa stopped.
22. The Portuguese then decided to explore the West African coast for the source of the AU.
23. The sea route along the African coast had been unpopular because ocean currents and winds off cape Bojador often drove ships onto the rocky coast and wrecked them.
24. To avoid this Portuguese discovered a new route west of two grps of islands in the Atlantic---Madeira and Azores
25. From here they got to the south of the African coast safely.
26. The Portuguese searched for Au wherever African rivers ran into the Atlantic, however they could not travel far inland because of waterfall and rapids
27. Portuguese established trade centres along the African coast. They bought Au and Ivory from people living nearby.
28. In 1441 traders began buying slaves.
29. In 1481 King John II launched new efforts in explorations. He wanted to trade directly with Portugal and India.
30. In 1488, Bartholomew Dias arrived at the southern tip of Africa and named it the Cape of storms because was buffeted violently there
31. King John II renamed it the Cape of Good Hope since Dias had found the passage around Africa to India.
32. Under King John, Vasco da Gama in July 1497 set out with four ships from Portugal.
33. He picked an Arab pilot on his way that was helpful in their voyage to India.
34. Da Gama reached the Indian port of Calicut in May 1498.
35. Spain had devoted their energies into conquering the last Muslim Stronghold of Granada.
36. Afterward Spain wanted to profit in the spice trade of Asia.
37.When Ferdinand and Isabella completed the reconquista in 1492 they cud pursue other goals
38. Queen Isabella wished to form alliances with rulers in India and china against the Muslims
39. She believed Christopher Columbus might help Spain achieve this
40. Columbus tried to convince Portugal and then Spain to sponsor a voyage westward across the Atlantic stressing that within 2 months they could reach Asia.
41. Some people like Columbus based their estimation on the size of the earth on Ptolemy work, however Ptolemy had under-estimated the size of the earth
42. Scholars at the university of Salamanca in Spain calculated correctly that the earth was much larger and it would take abt 4 months to reach Asia and ships could not store enough food or fresh water for the journey.
43. Queen Isabella agreed to sponsor Columbus journey. 3 ships, 90 sailors—3/08/1492, left Palos.
44. On 12/10/1492 they sighted land.
45. He sailed to the Caribbean islands of Cuba and Hispaniola, the Dominican Republic and claimed the new lands for Spain by establishing settlements.
46. The Pope arranged a settlement between Portugal and Spain over their claimed of the new lands
47. Spain and Portugal signed the treaty of tordesillas in 1494; this treaty drew a line of demarcation about 1100 miles from north to south. Portugal had the rights over the lands east of the line while Spain rights where over lands west of the line.
48. Further voyages revealed that Columbus had not reached the East Indies but had discovered a huge continent.
49. Amerigo Vespucci an Italian rep for the Medici bank in Spain undertook several voyages for Spain.
50. He charted the coastline of Central America and described it as Mundus Novus a Latin phrase for New World.
51. A German mapmaker labelled the continent America in 1507, in recognition of Amerigo Vespucci
52. In 1513 Juan Ponce de Leon voyaged to find the legendary fountain of youth, he however discovered Florida.
53. Vasco de Balboa discovered the pacific ocean
54. England, the Dutch, Netherlands and France ignored the treaty of Tordesillas as it excluded them.
55. In 1497, John Cabot, an Italian sea captain agreed to sail for England.
56. Martin Frobisher returned to England with a cargo that turn out to be worthless and not gold ore.
57. • Explorers did not find a northern passage to Asia
58. • Their search greatly increased European knowledge of the world.
59. • It contributed to the establishment of new settlements
60. • After Vasco da Gama’s voyage Portuguese could buy spices directly from Asia.
61. • Portugal dominated the spice trade in Europe.
62. • Portugal got pepper from India, cinnamon from Ceylon and cloves and nutmeg from the East Indies.
63. • Missionaries accompanied Portuguese where ever they went.
64. • Arab traders tried to prevent Portuguese trade with local Hindu and Muslim princes.
65. • This resulted in Portugal burning Muslim ships and ransacking the Muslim cities of East Africa as well as torturing prisoners.
66. • In 1509 Portugal appointed Affonso de Albuquerque the governor of their trading posts. He created the basis of a Portuguese trading empire after 6 years.
67. • He captured Ormuz which gave Portugal control of the Indian Ocean.
68. • He captured the narrow Strait of Malacca hoping to prevent other Europeans from reaching the East Indies.
69. • For most of the 1500, the Portuguese controlled the spice trade.
70. • In the late 1500 there was stiff competition between Portugal, France, England and the Netherlands over the spice trade.
71. • The Dutch East India Company was formed 7 years after an exploration in 1595.(1602).
72. • The Dutch attacked Portuguese ships and raided Portuguese trading stations.
73. • During the 1600s the Dutch replaced the Portuguese as the dominant power in the spice trade.
74. • England and France established small outposts along the southern coast of India. They won trading privileges as a result of the weakness of the mogul empire in the south of India as well as the alliances Hindu princes made with Europeans against their Muslim rulers.
75. • The first Portuguese trader met the Chinese merchants at Malacca.
76. • The Ming Chinese permitted only limited trade
77. • In 1542 Portugal came into contact with Japan; this was followed by the Spanish.
78. • Both Chinese and Japanese regarded Europeans as Barbarians.
79. • Chinese and Japanese required guns and few items; they distrusted Europeans having heard stories about Portuguese and Dutch seizing land in the East Indies, the activities of the Jesuits missionaries made them suspect Christians as allies of foreign traders who seized lands.
80. • In Japan, protestant merchants from England and the Netherlands encouraged the shogun’s suspicion of Portuguese and Spanish Catholics.
81. • By 1639 the Japanese expelled all foreigners and permitted only the Dutch once a year to trade at the port of Nagasaki.
82. • Asian rulers often dictated the terms of trade to Europeans as well as limited their movements.
83. • In the Americas, Europeans established colonies that they ruled.
84. • Portugal and Spain where the first establish an empire in the Americas during the early 1500s.
85. • Spanish rulers gave conquistadores or conquerors the right to establish outposts in America.
86. • Conquistadores agreed to give the crown 1/5 of any gold or treasure they discovered.
87. • Conquistadores were successors to the crusading knights who had fought the Muslims in Spain.
88. • In 1519, Hernando Cortes landed on the coast of Mexico in search of gold, he heard about the Aztec Empire and form alliance with various Indian tribes who hated them.
89. • With 400 soldiers and 16 horses he visited the Aztec capital and convinced their leader (Montezuma) to be a subject of Spain.
90. • In 1520, the Aztecs revolted but after a year Cortes and his allies defeated the Aztec capital and the empire collapsed after a few years.
91. • Nine years later Francisco Pizarro and 180 Spanish soldiers landed on the pacific coast. He took advantage of the Inca civil war to capture its ruler Atahualpa and execute many Inca officials.
92. • In 1535, Pizarro controlled most of the huge Inca Empire.
93. • Within 15 years the Aztec and Inca, the two most powerful empires in the Americas had collapse.
94. • REASON; Spain had better weapons( guns, canons), Aztec and India warriors had never seen horses before, some believed the conquistadores on the horse where gods, diseases was also a factor since Europeans could better mange diseases( epidemics of smallpox, chicken pox and measles destroyed entire villages.), many Indians helped the Spanish since they hated their Aztec and Inca rulers.
95. • The Spanish set up a strong centralized gov’t in the Americas that lasted nearly 300 years.
96. • The new lands were divided into 5 provinces, the wealthiest and most powerful being New Spain, Mexico and Peru.
97. • The Spanish king appointed a viceroy in each province as his rep.
98. • The king also formed a council of the Indies, they met in Spain to make rules for the colonies.
99. • Between 1524 and 1630 the council issued over 400,000 orders.
100. • The king supervised local government by appointing members of the cabildo or city council.
101. • The cabildo help spread Spanish civilization
102. By 1550 Mexico City had a public water system, paved and lighted street lights, printing presses and its own university.
103. • The Spanish govt gave settlers encomiendas----the rights to demand taxes or labour from Indians living on the land. This protected India land rights but introduced forced labour.
104. • The discovery of rich silver deposit in Peru and Mexico increased the forced labour, Indians died in cave-ins, mal-nutrition, overwork and disease.
105. • Spanish missionaries condemned the cruel treatment of the Indians and pleaded with the authorities in Madrid to pass laws to protect the Indians.
106. • The Spanish gov’t reacted seriously to this; it believed it had the responsibility to convert Indians to Christianity, it also saw the Indians as loyal subjects, it passed laws in 1542 that forbade making Indians slaves and gave Indians the right to own cattle and raise crops.
107. • Settlers made fortunes from exports; central and South America---Au, Ag, cocoa, coffee and lumber. West Indies---tobacco and sugar cane.
108. • Settlers in West Indies developed the plantation system to profit from sugar cane.
109. • A plantation was a large estate owned by an overseer and farmed on by workers living on it.
110. • Bartolome’ de Las Casas suggested that slaves from Africa were better able to withstand hard labour in the hot climate.
111. • Spain began importing thousands of Africans to the West Indies.
112. • African slaves died as a result of extreme heat below deck, lack of adequate water and food, diseases, attempted revolts.
113. • The middle passage is the voyage across the Atlantic. It lasted two months.
114. • The products of the plantation system of the West Indies and the Au and Ag of the new world made Spain the richest and most powerful nation in Europe.
115. • The Portuguese established their own system of government in Brazil.
116. • The king appointed a captain general to oversee the whole colony.
117. • He also gave loyal subjects large parcels of land.
118. • The donatario or land owner governed the territory he received.
119. • The donatario enlisted settlers to farm or trade on his land.
120. • Thousands of settlers rushed to Brazil in the late 1600s, when Portugal discovered deposits of diamonds and emeralds.
121. • For almost a century Spain and Portugal were the only European powers with colonies in Europe as political troubles and religious wars in Europe distracted other nations
122. • Dutch, French and English sea captains raided Spanish treasure ships sailing from the Caribbean to Spain and seized island in the West Indies.
123. • A few churches set up churches in North America during the early explorations.
124. • Through the Dutch the Netherlands became a powerful commercial nation in the 1500s.
125. • Dutch fought a long battle to gain independence from Spain.
126. • By early 1600, the Dutch were establishing settlements along the Hudson River.
127. • Peter Minuit became the first governor of New Netherlands as the Dutch colony was called.
128. • He bought Manhattan Island from local Indian with cloth and beads.
129. • About 200 Dutch settlers built a village on the island which they named New Amsterdam.
130. • Minuit wanted to attract people to New Netherland by granting large estates to patrons or wealthy landowners.
131. • Patroons brought farmers and labourers to work as tenants on their estates.
132. • They ruled their land like feudal lords. ---own law court to settle local disputes.
133. • When the Dutch West India Company criticized Minuit for giving large powers to patrons he left the new Netherlands and at a Swedish request helped Swedish settlers form a colony on the Delaware River. This was near a Dutch colony.
134. • The Dutch seized this colony in 1655 adding it to the new Netherlands.
135. • The French explored along the St. Lawrence River and built settlements north of the Dutch and Spanish colonies.
136. • Since 1500 the French regularly sailed to the water off Newfoundland to catch cod.
137. • After Cartier’s exploration of St. Lawrence in 1535 France discovered that fur from India where very profitable in Europe.
138. • French monarch took little interest in forming colonies because of political and religious distractions. E.g. Huguenots, French Protestants where forbidden to settle in New France, as they wanted to escape persecution.
139. • A group of traders with exclusive right in the fur trade sent Samuel de Champlain to establish a permanent settlement in Quebec in1608.
140. • France set up forts across the Great Lakes and along the St. Lawrence to protect the fur trade.
141. • Missionaries joined the fur traders wishing to gain convert among North America Indians.
142. • King Louis XVI in the late 1600s appointed his own governor, the Comte de Frontenac to rule New France and also limited the privileges of the fur trading companies.
143. • In 1682, Robert Cavelier sieur de la sale reached the mouth of the Mississippi and claimed the land for France and named the region after Louis xiv.
144. • During the 1600s the English settled in North America.
145. • They founded 13 colonies, some of which (Massachusetts and Virginia) were established by trading companies that received charters from the English government.
146. • Others where proprietary colonies----owned by individuals, usually friends of the king.
147. • The government appointed a royal governor to carry out its policies in each colony; also each colony had an elected assembly that passed local laws.
148. • A governor had to cooperate with the assembly even though he was responsible to parliament.
149. • The assembly approved the governor salaries and consented to laws he issued.
150. • The English government encourage its people to migrate to the new world colonies.
151. • Between 1630 and 1700, the population in English colonies rose from 900 to 200,000.
152. • REASONS; People crossed the Atlantic to English colonies because of religious freedom----the Puritans, persecuted in England for strict Calvinist beliefs founded (Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut). The Quakers settled in Pennsylvania. English Catholics led by Lord Baltimore immigrated to Maryland.
153. • Many settlers hoped to improve their economic and social positions. In colonies they had opportunity to become independent farmers, merchants, fur traders and artisans.
154. • Unlike the French there was strive over land between the native Indians and some settlers which continue until the 1800s.
155. • During the 1600s Spain, France, the Netherlands and England often competed for land in North America; this resulted in clashes between them.
156. • Some European powers sought help from Native Americans, France---Algonquin; Dutch—Iroquois. Fighting between the two meant fighting between two Indian nations.
157. • In 1664, England ousted the Dutch from New Netherland and renamed it New York.
158. • Spain established Florida but couldn’t expand north because the English settled in Georgia and the French, in Louisiana.
159. • 1700s England and France battled for control of Canada and lands west of the Appalachian Mountains.
160. • THE COMMERCIAL REVOLUTION----ECONOMIC RECOVERY.
161. • The economic growth of the late middle ages ended bcos of the Black Death, 1/3 of the population was lost
162. • Population begun to increase in the 1400s
163. • Farmers from the country side moved to cities to work in textile industries.
164. • Growing city population resulted in needed food and landowner’s paid farmers higher wages to prevent migration. Some farmers rented lands on more favourable terms.
165. • In time merchants began work producing manufactured goods in cities. They exported raw materials from colonies and other countries.
166. • THE ENTREPRENUER---merchant—overseas trade----willing to take risk in hope of higher profits.
167. • They turned the economy of Europe from a local to a national and international system.
168. • Some problems they faced were; Robberies, pirates, floods, shipwreck
169. • Merchants reduced risks through insurance, partnerships (share losses and gains), investing in several business.
170. • FINANCING NEW VENTURES.
171. • Merchants needed capital for business and monarchs needed capital for war and overseas trade---they all turned to extremely rich merchant families who became bankers of Europe and gave loans.
172. • Merchants also form joint stock companies that gave out shares to investors, investors shared loses and gains.
173. • Monarchs sometimes issued charters to trading companies giving them exclusive rights to trade in an area.
174. • THE SEARCH FOR GOLD AND SILVER---Europeans didn’t use paper money but Au, Ag, Cu, this was limited in quantity so when commence increased there was shortage of money. The need for Au drove the Spanish, Dutch, French and English to explore new lands.
175. • MERCANTILISM----During 1500, the was believe that precious metal held the key to economic growth. In 1600s a new economic philosophy called mercantilism dev---keeping gold supplies by exporting more than importing. More profit in selling finished prdts than raw materials. Mercantilist stressed that rulers should regulate trade and commence to make a nation self sufficient while supporting key industries and by using colonies as a source of raw material.
176. CHANGING PARTERNS-----gilds regulated production very tightly and cud not meets needs of a growing population, thus entrepreneurs’ dev a system by paying village dwellers to work on raw materials (domestic syst).
177. Also the upper class---Nobles, merchants, bankers built huge palaces decorated with art works, dressed in exotic clothe and ate exotic food
QUESTIONS
1) Locate: East Indies, West Indies, and Line of Demarcation.
2) Identify: Prince Henry the Navigator, Bartholomeu Dias, Christopher Columbus, Treaty of Tordesillas, Amerigo Vespucci, Ferdinand Magellan
3) Define: latitude, astrolabe, longitude.
4) List three technical advances that helped make the voyages of exploration possible.
5) Why were the discoveries of Ponce De Leon and Balboa important to Spain
6) What did Magellan set out to find
7) What countries sent explorers to seek a northwest passage to Asia
8) What areas were explored as a result?
9) Locate: Goa, Malacca, Spice Islands, Macao, Canton, and Nagasaki.
10) Identify: Affonso de Albuquerque.
11) What were the main products Europeans wanted from Asia?
12) What nations competed for trading rights in Asian?
13) What attitude did the rulers of china and Japan have toward European traders?
14) What policy did china and Japan eventually follow toward foreigners?
15) Identify: Hernando Corte’s, Francisco Pizarro, Council of the Indies, Bartolome’ deLas Casas, Middle Passage.
16) Define: conquistador, cabildo, encomienda, plantation, donatorio.
17) What three motives brought the conquistadores to the Americas?
18) List two reasons the Spanish were able to defeat the Aztec and Inca empires with so few soldiers.
19) How did the New Laws of 1542 protect the Indians?
20) Why did Spain begin bringing slaves to the Americas?
21) What discovery in the late 1600s brought many settlers to Brazil?
22) Locate: Newfoundland New France, Louissiana, English colonies.
23) Identify Peter Minuit, Samuel de Champlain, Louis Joliet, and Jacques Marquette.
24) Define: Patroon, proprietary colonies.
25) Why did Spain show little interest in its northern territory?
26) What was the economic basis of New France?
27) What two motives led people to settle in the English colonies?
28) Which two nations were the main rivals in North America in the 1700s
29) Define: entrepreneur, capital, joint-stock company, mercantilism, and domestic system, capitalist.
30) What led to economic recovery in the 1400s
31) What risk did entrepreneurs face, describe on way in which they reduced these risks.
32) Why did the Dutch government give the Dutch East India company exclusive trading rights in the East Indies?
33) How did growing trade with Asia lead to a shortage of gold and silver in Europe?
34) What economic role did mercantilist think colonies should play?
35) Why did guilds become less important?
Wednesday, April 23, 2008
Free Short Notes on Psychology for Everyday Living for Exam purpose only
PLEASE TAKE NOTE THAT THE SOURCE OF INFORMATION FOR THIS NOTES IS THE ADULT EDUCATION CENTER OF THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA PSYCHOLOGY 102 TEXTBOOK. TO RESPECT THE COPYRIGHT OF THE MATERIAL DO NOT USE IT FOR FINACIAL GAIN.
1) Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour due to experience (Coon, 2001)
2) Reinforcement is any event that will increase the probability that our behaviour will occur again. It is a key to the learning process
3) A response is any identifiable behaviour that can be observed externally or that can occur internally.
4) They can be observable actions such as blinking, combing your hair or locking a door. They can also be internal such as a faster heart beat.(Coon, 2001)
5) Antecedents are events that happen before response. Consequences are effects that follow after a response.
6) The three types of learning are by, association or classical conditioning, reinforcement or operant conditions and observational behaviour or social learning.
7) Association---associating fear, reinforcement-----receiving a reward afterwards, observational behaviour----observing the behaviour of others.
8) Factors that affect learning are: motivation, intelligence. Others are maturation, physical condition of the learner, good physical working conditions, active practice and repetition, Distributed learning, Teaching Methods and aids, timing of the teaching and learning experience, education and previous knowledge, nature of the teacher, feedback of results, the level of attention.
9) Motivation---the greater and clearer you motive to learn the stronger the effort and interest you show in learning.
10) Intrinsic motivation occurs when the individual enjoys what he/she is learning and so learns better.
11) Extrinsic motivation occurs when other forces urge an individual to learn.(e.g. for good grades)
12) Intelligence provides the ability of understand things, seeing the relationship between things, reasoning and judging correctly and critically.
13) Maturation is when the individual has to attain both physical and psychological maturity to understand some topics.
14) Physical conditions of the learner deals with the learner being physically challenged or handicapped and thus not able to achieve good performance and vice versa.
15) Good physical working conditions show that comfortable surroundings and absence of disruptions promote effective learning.
16) Active practices and repetition deals with rehearsing several times after learning.
17) Distributed learning deals with spreading what is to be learnt over a conducive period of time. It includes the avoidance of learning for long periods of time as learning capacity decreases with time.
18) Teaching methods should be interactive where as the use of aids such as charts or diagrams provide interactive teaching and promote effective learning.
19) Previous knowledge promotes transfer of learning from an old to a new situation and also affects one’s understanding and acceptance of new ideas in a new learning situation.
20) The Nature of the teacher affects learning since teachers who are warm, open and respect the views of learners instead of criticising them encourage effective learning.
21) Feedback of results helps a learner know his shortcomings and correct them. It also serves as a motivation.
22) Paying attention to what is being taught promotes effective learning.
23) Reasons for punishment----correctional, retributive, deterrent.
24) Punishment is the process in which a response is followed with pain or an otherwise negative event; or when a response is followed with a removal of a positive reinforcement.
25) A punisher is any event that decreases the probability or frequency of response it follows (Coon, 2001).
26) A punisher decrease behaviour while reinforcement increases behaviour.
27) The dangers of punishment, it can be reinforcing to the punisher as the intensity of punishment increases and leads to abuse, it has a slowing down effect on the person being punished as such the person may stop altogether instead of reducing something he/she is being punished for, in this case something that is required for everyday normal living----talking, running ect, it can also make an individual being punished hate the person administering punishment or channel their aggression to their subordinates, sometimes the punisher may not be effective and rather reinforce the behaviour---criticism trap, punishment does not teach an individual how to act appropriately but suppresses inappropriate behaviour.
28) Guidelines for using punishment; Find out the alternative ways of controlling behaviour and apply them if they exist, make sure you apply punishment immediately after an inappropriate behaviour, use the minimum punishment available or risk the effectiveness of the punisher, separate the inappropriate behaviour from the person as a result do not despise the person being punished, make sure you punish every time an improper behaviour occurs as a result tolerate no exceptions, you must not be surprised when you see anger, you must have some kindness and respect when you punish.
29) Memory is an active system that receives, stores or organises, alters and recovers information (Baddeley, 1996).
30) Types of memory; sensory memory, short term memory, long term memory.
31) Sensory memory picks information from senses around as, it last about 1-2 seconds.
32) Short term memory acts as a storehouse for small amounts of information---information is stored here by paying attention and rehearsing.
33) Long term memory is a place where memory is kept for a long period of time; sometimes as long as a person’s life.
34) Rehearsal means mentally reviewing a material
35) Forgetting is the inability to retrieve memory that has been formed.
36) Reasons why we forget; failure to form memory, insufficient cues, failure to use memory, interference which is the tendency of new memories to impair our ability to retrieve old memories and vice versa, Suppression: it is a conscious effort to put something out of memory, Repression: unconscious effort to force something out of memory.
37) Psychologists have recommended Self-Regulated learning as a means of improving memory.
38) It includes; setting specific learning goals, plan a learning strategy, be your own teacher ,monitor your progress, reinforce yourself, evaluate your progress and goals, take corrective action.
39) How to improve memory: Get feedback of what you are learning, Practice recitation, rehearse what you have learnt (this is done mentally not audibly), Practise selective reading (by highlighting main points), Over learn the material, Sleep right after studies (it reduces interference), review what you have learnt.
40) Importance of motivation: it connects observable behaviour to internal states, it accounts for variability in behaviour, it explains perseverance despite adversity, and it connects biology to behaviour, it energies us and makes as active, it gives us direction in life, it aids performance, Primary motives aid survival.
41) Motivation is the internal sate or condition that activates and gives direction to our thoughts feelings and actions. (Lahey, 2003)
42) Motivation is a process, in initiates our intentions, it sustains the actions initiated, and it directs the actions towards a desired goal.
43) It usually begins with a need leading to a drive which activates a response designed to achieve a goal.
44) Need---internal deficiency, drive---an energized motivational state, response----an action or series of actions, goal----the target of motivational behaviour.
45) Beyond internal needs to incentives; pull of external stimuli and push of internal needs. The pull exerted by a goal is called its incentive value---a goal’s appeal beyond its ability to fill a need.
46) Primary motives are based on biological needs we require for survival----hunger, thirst, self preservation or avoidance of pain, air, sleep, elimination of waste from our bodies, regulation of our body temperature.
47) Primary drives maintain the equilibrium or homeostasis of our bodies. There are ideal states in the body for body temperature, concentration of glucose in the blood, and blood pressure.
48) If the body deviates from these ideal levels, automatic reactions restore the equilibrium.
49) The hypothalamus regulates many motives and emotions including hunger; it is located in the forebrain.
50) The lever and upper small intestines can regulate or detect blood sugar levels.
51) Importance of the hypothalamus in regulating hunger; it detects and regulates sugar levels in the body; it detects the amount of fat in the body as such it manages body weight.
52) Psychological aspect of hunger include: Maturation and learning (socialization), emotions( anxiety—eat more, depressed—eat less), incentives, obesity
53) Factors that influence obesity: diet, emotions, genetics or traits, inadequate or no regular exercise.
54) Human sex drive is influenced by: the mind, the culture we find ourselves in, our emotional state
55) Stimulus motives are needed for stimulation and information such as curiosity, exploration, manipulation and physical contact.
56) They are not necessary for survival.
57) Arousal refers to the activation of the body and the central nervous system. At zero---Dead, low----asleep, moderate-----during normal daily activities, high-----excited, panic.
58) People who are high on sensation turn to be; bold, are independent, value change, report having more sexual partners and more likely to smoke.
59) People who are low on sensation turn to be; orderly, nurturing, giving and enjoy the company of others.
60) The ideal level of arousal for performance is moderate.
61) How to cope with test anxiety: rehearse, Preparation, Restructuring thought (thinking positively), relaxation.
62) Test anxiety refers to high levels of arousal and worry that seriously impairs test performance.
63) Secondary motives do not have any connection with biological drives but are purely learned or acquired.
64) They are related to affiliation, approval, status, security and achievement.
65) The need for achievement is the desire to excel or meet some internalized standard of excellence (McClelland, 1961).
66) People with this need; enjoy challenges and avoid goals that are too easy, endeavour to do well, do not succumb to failure, more likely to earn better grades as students, likely to get promotions and often peruse carriers as entrepreneurs.
67) People who desire to have power want their importance to be visible (they want to prove to others clearly and without any reasonable doubt that they are important), they spend a lot of money on expensive clothes, exploit relationships (relationship of convenience).
68) Need for power is the desire to have social impart or control over others.
69) People low on need for achievement are; motivated strongly by the desire to avoid failure, they set low goal everyone can achieve or goals that are too high and impossible to achieve, more likely to quite when they face difficulties.
70) Ryan and Deci (2000) say the need for achievement is driven by either intrinsic motivation or extrinsic motivation or both.
71) Extrinsic motivation is based on external rewards while intrinsic motivation is based on internal pleasure and gratification in accomplishing a particular goal.
72) The key to success is drive and determination(Talent is natured by dedication and hard work), commitment of parents to expose their children to different activities, intensive practice and expect coaching, Self confidence(the believe in once self that something can be achieved)
73) Ways of improving self confidence by Druckman and Bjork (1994): set specific and challenging goals that are attainable, do not rush, learn before you prefect, get expert advice, get support and encouragement from others, and learn from professionals.
74) In anxious situations and painful experiences people turn to affiliate with others, others affiliate for friendship and in event of chronic illment.
75) According to Abraham Maslow our motives are organised in a hierarchy.
76) Physiological needs----safety needs-----love and Belonging Needs-----Esteem Needs( lower—respect for others, need for status, fame, glory, recognition, attention, reputation, appreciation, dignity, dominance and higher-----self respect, confidence, competence, achievement, mastery, independence and freedom)-----Self actualization.
77) Primary or physiological needs and secondary or security needs.
78) Primary needs---air, water, food, sleep, excretion, shelter
79) Characteristic of self actualization(based on Jones and Crandall, 1986); you must be dedicated to a mission beyond your personal selfish interest in life, believe that people are essentially good and trustworthy, show love to others even though you may dislike their behaviour, feel adequate to deal with the challenges of life, accept your weakness, don’t depend on the approval of others by being yourself, are able to express your feelings even when they are unpopular, are able to accept all your emotions even negative ones, are not afraid to fail.
80) Intrinsically motivated people work harder and respond to challenges by even working harder; they enjoy their work more and perform creatively and effectively.
81) Extrinsically motivated people work for promotion, praise, salary, conditions of work ect.
82) Intrinsic motivation fuels achievement rather than extrinsic motivation that ends when the external reward ends.
83) Extrinsic rewards can be given when the behaviour occurs infrequently, or if the intrinsic motivation for the behaviour is deemed to be too little.
84) Praise should be given to a child if the child was successful by his/her own effort and not talent or ability, if the praise is sincere and does not suggest the controlling of the child, if it doesn’t compare the child to other children, when the child has been successful knowing that he/she is achieving a standard that has been set for him/her by his/her parents.
85) Sensation is the immediate response in the brain caused by excitation of a sensory organ. (Coon ,2001)
86) Perception is the mental process of organising sensations into meaningful patterns. (Coon ,2001)
87) The five main senses: sight, hearing, smell, touch, taste.
88) Stimulus is converted into neural impulses for the brain to understand.
89) Attributes of our senses; they are a window to the world as we are made more aware of our surroundings by them, they are converted to neural impulses to enable the brain understand, our senses are selective and we tend to give more attention to important things, they are adaptive
90) Characteristics of things that get more of our attention; they are usually more intense, louder, brighter, larger, repetitive.
91) Factors that influence perception include motivation; as such students who are hungry are more likely to interpret pictures which are not clear as food, males who are sexually aroused perceive females as being physically attractive, People who are anxious are likely to interpretate sentences which are not clear as threatening, children from poor socioeconomic backgrounds are more likely to estimate the size of a coin as being big than children from higher income backgrounds.
92) Other factors are: learning experience of people in different cultures(socialization), Age, religious beliefs, educational background(level of education), your values( how you where brought up)
93) Gestalt Psychologist assert that the following can cause the formation of an image; nearness(stimulus that are near each other tend to be grouped together in perception), similarity (stimulus that are similar in size, shapes, colour turn to be grouped together), closure (join pieces of information that are disconnected in order to perceive whole forms), contiguity, common region (stimuli that are found within a common region or areas tend to be seen as a group), continuity (visual elements that permit lines, curves or movements to continue in a direction already established tend to be grouped together).
94) Perceptual constancies are whereby we believe something does not change even though we view it from different angles.
95) There are 4 types of perceptive constancies :( Brightness constancies, colour constancy) ---do not change under different light conditions, size constancy----familiar objects do not change in perceived size at different distance, Shape constancy.
96) An illusion occurs when you mind incorrectly interprets stimulus patterns.
97) Illusions fool us by creating monocular depth cues.
98) Typical illusions become more likely under the following conditions; when the stimulus is unclear, when information is missing, when the elements are combine in unusual ways, when familiar patterns are not present.
99) An eye witness is someone who saw an event and can give evidence about it.
100) An eye witness report is a report by someone who was a first hand observer to an event and that report is needed to find out more facts about the event.
101) Some factors affecting the accuracy of an eye witness report; stress----weapon focus(the tendency to focus ones attention on the attackers weapon), the time period of exposure to the event----short time, the way eyewitnesses are questioned, Attitudes and expectations, Interference from post event information( filling gaps to make story believable), the confidence of the eyewitness-----can be over-confident, colour perception( monochromatic light alters colour)
102) Some factors to minimize errors in eyewitness testimony during line-up; train police interviewers(eye witness must first offer their own uninterrupted recollection of the event, interviewers can then jog the memory), remind the witness that the suspect may or may not be in the parade----a blank line up could be used first, make eyewitness respond yes or no to a sequence of people, Avoid situations where a witness has to stop, think and analytically compare faces as accurate identifications turn to be automatic and effortless, do not let the line up be too contrasting where only one person looks like the culprit.
103) Ways of becoming a better eyewitness; Do not forget that perceptions are developed from reality; ask questions like is what I am seeing accurate, can there be a another way of interpreting what I am seeing, Be aware of perceptual sets such as labels and stereotyping (don’t judge people based on where they live, their religion or ethnic background), be aware that emotions and motives have influence on perception since you may be convinced by your own interests, needs, desires and emotions. Be attentive and pay attention to others and your surroundings.
104) Ways of improving the accuracy of your perception; break perceptual habits and interrupt habits that you have become used to(do something new for a change), develop the habit of testing reality once a while in your life,
105) Test reality in the following ways; ask questions, seek clarification, identify other sources of information you have, look out for extraordinary experiences.
106) Reasons why people form interpersonal relationships; Friendship, social support, search for approval, to alleviate our fears and anxieties
107) Friendship is the first relationship we form outside the family
108) Some characteristics of friendship; Companionship---share similar values, Respect---work together to resolve differences, Acceptance, Help---support and sharing, Trust, Loyalty, Mutuality, Reciprocity.
109) Intimate partnership includes; sexual desire, sexual expression, greater demand for exclusiveness, deeper levels of caring.
110) How to make friends; find people with similar interest to your own, be a good listener, take risks by making new friends
111) How to be a good friend; be trustworthy, disclose yourself, be supportive and kind, develop your capacity for intimacy, don’t expect perfection
1. Some reasons for friendship; Physical proximity----we are generally attracted to people whom we have frequent contact with, physically attractiveness-----the halo effect( the tendency to generalize a favourable impression to unrelated personal characteristics)
2. • Because of the halo effect we assume that attractive people are likable, intelligent, warm, witty, mentally healthy and socially skilled(Feingold,1992)
3. • Advantages of being physically beautiful; they are less lonely, less socially anxious, more popular, socially skilled.
4. • Other Factors that influence attraction; competence, similarity( age, interest, attitudes, beliefs), self disclosure
5. • Self Disclosure involves revealing personal information that we ordinarily would not reveal because of the risk involved.
6. • Over disclosure is self disclosure that exceeds what is appropriate for a relationship or social situation. It gives rise to suspicion and reduces attraction.
7. • Love includes; trust, caring, respect, loyalty, interest and concern for the other partner.
8. • Sex brings excitement and passion to a relationship; it adds fascination and pleasure to a relationship.
9. • Commitment is characterized by; responsibility, reliability and faithfulness.
10. • According to Robert Sternberg, love is composed of; intimacy---feeling of closeness we have for someone we love, passion (romance, attraction and sexuality) and commitment.
11. • He asserts that these three elements can be enlarged, diminished and combined in different ways.
12. intimacy alone =liking
14. passion alone =infatuation
16. commitment alone =empty love
18. Intimacy + passion =romantic love
20. Passion + commitment = fatuous love
22. Intimacy +commitment =compassionate love
24. intimacy + passion + commitment =consummate love
26. • Some challenges in relationships; Self Disclosure, Unequal or premature commitment, Unrealistic expectations(when you are expecting your partner to change, when you believe that your partner has the same opinions, interest, priorities and goals as you),When you become competitive, when you become jealous,
27. • Secure attachment is characterized by: caring, intimacy, Supportiveness and understanding.
28. • People with Avoidant attachment; redraw when the relationship is going through rough times, suspicious and aloof, sceptical about love, see others as unreliable or overly eager to commit to a relationship, get nervous when people are getting too emotional close, avoid intimacy.
29. • People with Ambivalent Attachment; regard themselves as misunderstood and unappreciated, seeing friends and lovers as unreliable and are not ready to commit themselves to lasting relationships, worrying that their romantic partners don’t really love them or may leave them, have doubts about their partners dependability and trustworthiness although they want to be extremely close.
30. • Successful Relationships; Good communication skills---are not always verbal(non verbal---looking at or away, leaning forward or backward, smile or frown, touch, eye contact, proximity),Self Disclosure, Listening and feedback(qualities of a good listener: Empathy, warmth, respect, Genuineness), Conflict resolution----(find out what each partner wants, identify various alternatives for getting what each person wants, decide how to negotiate, solidify the agreements, review and renegotiate), ability to ask for and give support.
31. • Ending a relationship----give the relationship a fair chance before breaking up, be fair and honest, be tactful and compassionate, and if you are the rejected person give yourself time to resolve your anger and pain as such do not rush into another relationship.
32. • Wellness is a choice to assume responsibility for the quality of your life.
33. • Health can be defined as the general condition of the body or mind, especially in terms of the presence or absence of illnesses, injuries, or impairments.
34. • There are at least 6 categories of wellness; Physical wellness-----eating well, exercising, avoiding harmful habits, making responsible decisions about sex, learning about and recognizing the symptoms of disease, getting regular medical and dental checkups and taking steps to avoid injuries.
35. • Emotional wellness includes; optimism, trust, self esteem, self confidence, self control, satisfying relationships, ability to share feelings.
36. • Intellectual wellness; openness to new ideas, capacity to question and think critically, motivation to master new skills, having a sense of humour, having a sense of creativity and curiosity
37. • Spiritual wellness; have a set of guiding beliefs, principles and values that give meaning and purpose to your life, have the capacity for love, compassion, forgiveness, altruism, joy and fulfilment.( it suppresses cynicism, anger, fear, anxiety, self absorption and pessimism.
38. • Interpersonal and social wellness; having mutual loving and supportive people in your life, learning good communication skills, developing the capacity for intimacy, participate and contributing to your community, country and the world.
39. • Environmental and Planetary wellness ;(egs of environmental threats; ultraviolet radiation in sunlight, Air and water pollution, lead in old house paint, second-hand tobacco smoke in indoor air.
40. • Why people don’t seek help; to prevent others from knowing their problems, afraid of what their own friends may say or think, may not know who to go for help, suspicious that they may be force for treatment without consent.
41. • Psychological health is the presence of wellness.
42. • Factors affecting psychological health: Realism, Acceptance---ready to accept yourself and others(feel good about yourself, what you are capable of doing, roles you are given to play, optimistic about what you can expect from people and ready to interact with people who are not ready to change), Autonomy---(not afraid of expressing your opinions though others may disapprove, find guidance from you own self, values and feelings, act because they choose to and not because they are driven or pressured), Creativity.
43. • Ways of growing psychologically, develop an adult identity( see themselves realistically and can access their weaknesses and strengths without relying on the opinions of others, appreciate what they share in common with other and see themselves as unique), developing intimacy---(sharing, open communication, long term commitment and love), develop values and purpose in your life, dealing with your anger
44. • Stress is an event or situations that cause people to fell tension, pressure or negative emotions as anxiety and anger or Stress is our body’s response to events or situation around us.
45. • Psychologically stress is a process that involves a person’s interpretation and response to a threatening event or the body’s reaction to any change that requires an adjustment or response.
46. • Characteristics of Stress: it is normal, often experience because of problems or extreme fear pertaining to physical threat, it can have both negative and positive effects, if not managed can become chronic and lead to both physical and mental illness.
47. • Some myths about stress: stress is the same for everybody, stress is always bad for you, stress is inevitable, the most popular techniques for reducing stress are the best ones, no symptoms means no stress, only major symptoms of stress require attention.
48. • Stressors are the circumstances that cause stress. They can be categorized into three groups; catastrophic events, major life changes and daily hassles. In addition thinking about unpleasant past events and anticipating unpleasant future events.
49. • Daily hassles occur more frequently. They can be grouped into; College Stressors (Academic, interpersonal, time and financial) stressors, job-related stressors(working overtime, worries about performance, salary and job security, interaction with bosses, co-workers and customers), social stressors(gender, ethnic minorities, economic disadvantage, disability),Environmental stressors(intrusive noises, smells or sights, natural disasters, industrial accidents, living in poor/violent neighbourhoods ), internal stressor(unrealistic expectation, physical/emotional state).
50. • A Canadian scientist by name Hans Selye proposed a three stage model of the stress response, he termed general adaptation syndrome. They are alarm, resistance, exhaustion.
51. • How stress affects the body; heart beats faster, blood flow to brain and muscles increase, muscles tension increases, digestion stops, faster breathing to supply muscles with oxygen.
52. • Symptoms of body stress; moody and hypersensitivity, restlessness and anxiety, depression, anger and resentment, lack of confidence, apathy, urge to laugh or cry at inappropriate times.
53. • How stress can affect your body physically; headaches, digestive problems, muscle tension and pain, sleep disturbances, fatigue, chest pain, irregular heartbeat, high blood pressure, weight gain or loss, asthma or shortness of breath, skin problems, decreased sex drive.
54. • How stress can affect your behaviour; eating more or less, sleeping too much or too little, isolating yourself from others, neglecting your responsibility, increasing alcohol and drug use, nervous habits(Teeth grinding or jaw clenching), overdoing activities as exercising or shopping, over reacting to unexpected problems.
55. • The sympathetic nerves are part of the nervous system which is active during stress or danger. It pumps adrenaline into the blood stream during danger.
56. • Stress compromises the ability to fight off diseases and infections, causes difficulty to conceive a baby, stunts growth in children
57. • Long term stress can cause or worsen the following: Heart attack, Hypertension, stroke, cancer, diabetes, depression, obesity, substance abuse, ulcers, memory loss, insomnia, infertility.
58. • The relationship between stress and ill health is that, it is a risk factor to developing diseases and breaks down the immune system.
59. • Stress management simply means identifying and analyzing the problem related to stress and applying a variety of effective measures to alter either the source of stress or the experience of stress.
60. • The aim of stress management is to help the individual function at his/her optimum level in a healthy and positive manner.
61. • Ways to manage stress; Exercise, good nutrition, avoid excessive use of alcohol, avoid smoking(smoking can cause impotency, dental diseases, premature skin wrinkling, premature baldness and reduced fertility), rest, encourage yourself, learn to say no if you don’t want to do something or can’t do it, Time management(don’t be overcommitted and procrastinating, set realistic goals and set your priorities right, budget enough time for what you want to do and do your favourite task first, give yourself a break, delegate others), cultivate a sense of humour(elevates heart rate, aids digestion, eases pain), think constructively----consider positive solutions to your problem, support from others, seek professional help.
62. • Cortiso increases blood pressure and frees fatty acids into the bloodstream.
63. • First report of HIV/AIDS in the world was in USA---1981 and in Ghana-----1986.
64. • Some varieties of sexual behaviour; Erotic fantasy and masturbation, touching and foreplay, oral-genital stimulation, anal sex and sexual intercourse.
65. • Paraphilias are problematic sexual behaviours as inflicting pain on others, making obscene phone calls, having sex with children and peeping into the homes of strangers.
66. • HIV is transmitted ; sexually, blood-borne, implacental, by sharing infected sharp and piercing objects
67. • Behaviour change communication involves the ABCD approach to prevent the spread of STD’s.
68. • A---abstain, B-----be faithful, C-----use a condom, D----don’t share sharp and piercing objects.
69. • Ways of finding healthy sexual values; know yourself and work towards accepting your sexual needs and orientation, don’t be bound by popular sexual standards you are personally uncomfortable with(from friends and media),examine what your religion has to say about sexual matters, think ahead of various sexual situations and scenarios and anticipate how you will react to them, take opportunities to clarify your sexual values( read educational books, groups discussions and classes)
70. • Characteristics of responsible adult sexual behaviour; they must be open and honest communication( what does sex mean to either partner),agreement on sexual activities(no use of force),sexual privacy(do not reveal private information about the relationship to others, using contraception(to prevent unwanted babies), safer sex(be honest about health conditions),sober sex, taking responsibility.
71. • A Drug is any substance, natural or artificial, other than food that by its chemical nature alters structure or function in the living organism.
72. • Illicit drugs are drugs which are unlawful to posses and use.
73. • Drug misuse refers to the use of prescribe drugs in greater amounts than, or for purposes other than those prescribed by a physician or dentist.
74. • Drug abuse refers to the use of a substance in a manner, amount or situation such that the uses of the drug possess social, legal, occupational, psychological or physical problems.
75. • Characteristics of Drug Dependency: Developing tolerance to the substance(increasing dosage as time goes on), experiencing redrawal (going for the drug when its concentration decreases in your blood), Expressing a persistent desire to cut down or regulate substance use(mostly unsuccessful), taking the substance in larger amounts or over a longer period than was originally intended, Spending a great deal of time obtaining the substance using the substance or recovering from its effects, giving up or reducing important social, school, work or recreational activities because of the substance use, continuing to use the substance in spite of recognizing that it is contribution to a psychological or physical problem.
76. • Drug addiction is characterized by; frequent use of the drug, great determination to acquire and use the drug, taking about the drug most often, zeal to know more about the drug.
77. • Characteristics associated with addictive behaviour; There is reinforcement(it is made stronger by another addictive behaviour), there is compulsion or craving, there is loss of control, there is escalation, there are negative consequences(health, legal, financial, academic, personal relationship, job) problems,
78. • Characteristics of drug free people; they perceive drugs as risky, usually have positive self esteem, self control, social competence, optimism, academic achievement, regular church attendance, people from strict homes against substance abuse, people who feel supported and cared for.
79. • Why some people use drugs; Peer pressure, to imitate adult models who use drugs, to experiment, to reduce unpleasant psychological feeling as anxiety, depression and feeling of worthlessness, to enhance bodily sensations, to increase psychological and physical performance by reducing unpleasant bodily sensations like pain, insomnia, tiredness and physiological needs like sleep and hunger, To transcend the limit of their body or do what they would not normally be able to do.
80. • Caution in using memory enhancing drugs: psychoactive drugs may impair memory eventually behavior and lead to death, uncontrolled dosages of may lead to death and disrupt memory, use of alcohol leads to easy memory loss.
81. • Commonly abused drugs; the Opiods (morphine and heroin), Sedative-hypnotics (Barbiturates and benzodiazepines), Stimulants (Cocaine, amphetamines), Hallucinogens (lysergic acid diethylamide, mescaline), Cannabis (marijuana and Hashish) and Inhalants (glue, gasoline, aerosols.
82. • Heroin was introduced as a cough suppressant and non-addictive substitute for morphine in 1898
83. • Opium’s may suppress coughing, reduce movement of the intestines and induce a state of psychological indifference.
84. • Morphine is a potent pain reliever.
85. • Withdrawal symptoms of opioids include; kicking movements in the legs, anxiety, insomnia, nausea, sweating, cramps, vomiting, diarrhoea, and fever.
86. • Abrupt withdrawal symptoms of Barbiturates; shaking, insomnia, anxiety, convulsion, delirium, and death if suddenly discontinued.
87. • Benzodiazepines (valium and Librium) are used in the treatment of anxiety, insomnia and epilepsy.
88. • Cocaine is used medically to produce anaesthesia for surgery of the nose, throat and to contract blood vessels and reduce bleeding during surgery.
89. • “Crack” is a highly addictive smokable form of cocaine.
90. • Amphetamines where introduced in the 1930’s for the treatment of colds and hay fever. Today they are restricted to hyperactivity in children, narcolepsy
91. • Amphetamines heighten alertness, elevate mood, decrease fatigue and the need for sleep
92. • Withdrawal from amphetamines particularly if the drug has been injected intravenously produces severe depression.
93. • Hallucinogens are occasionally used in the treatment of dying patients, drug abusers and alcoholics. They have no apparent redrawal symptoms.
94. • Cannabis sativa is the source of both marijuana and hashish. Effects are a state of relaxation, accelerated heart rate, perceived slowing of time, heightened sense of hearing, taste, touch and smell.
95. • Cannabis has been used experimentally for treating alcoholism, seizures, pain, and glaucoma. Its active ingredient is delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC).
96. • Inhalants depress the central nervous system when sniffed. Effects of using inhabitants are headache, nausea, and drowsiness. Sniffing inhalants can impair vision, judgment and muscle and reflex control.
97. • Isoamyl nitrite has legitimate medical functions as a blood vessel dilator.
98. • Some caution before drug use; know the risk involved, is using the drug well-matched with your goals, know your ethical beliefs about drug use, know the financial cost involved, know your reason for drug use and whether it is the best option
99. • Activities to consider to avoid or reduce drug use; introduce yourself to something new, exercise, visit a counsellor, focus on areas in your life where you are competent, look for new friends, join religious groups
1) Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour due to experience (Coon, 2001)
2) Reinforcement is any event that will increase the probability that our behaviour will occur again. It is a key to the learning process
3) A response is any identifiable behaviour that can be observed externally or that can occur internally.
4) They can be observable actions such as blinking, combing your hair or locking a door. They can also be internal such as a faster heart beat.(Coon, 2001)
5) Antecedents are events that happen before response. Consequences are effects that follow after a response.
6) The three types of learning are by, association or classical conditioning, reinforcement or operant conditions and observational behaviour or social learning.
7) Association---associating fear, reinforcement-----receiving a reward afterwards, observational behaviour----observing the behaviour of others.
8) Factors that affect learning are: motivation, intelligence. Others are maturation, physical condition of the learner, good physical working conditions, active practice and repetition, Distributed learning, Teaching Methods and aids, timing of the teaching and learning experience, education and previous knowledge, nature of the teacher, feedback of results, the level of attention.
9) Motivation---the greater and clearer you motive to learn the stronger the effort and interest you show in learning.
10) Intrinsic motivation occurs when the individual enjoys what he/she is learning and so learns better.
11) Extrinsic motivation occurs when other forces urge an individual to learn.(e.g. for good grades)
12) Intelligence provides the ability of understand things, seeing the relationship between things, reasoning and judging correctly and critically.
13) Maturation is when the individual has to attain both physical and psychological maturity to understand some topics.
14) Physical conditions of the learner deals with the learner being physically challenged or handicapped and thus not able to achieve good performance and vice versa.
15) Good physical working conditions show that comfortable surroundings and absence of disruptions promote effective learning.
16) Active practices and repetition deals with rehearsing several times after learning.
17) Distributed learning deals with spreading what is to be learnt over a conducive period of time. It includes the avoidance of learning for long periods of time as learning capacity decreases with time.
18) Teaching methods should be interactive where as the use of aids such as charts or diagrams provide interactive teaching and promote effective learning.
19) Previous knowledge promotes transfer of learning from an old to a new situation and also affects one’s understanding and acceptance of new ideas in a new learning situation.
20) The Nature of the teacher affects learning since teachers who are warm, open and respect the views of learners instead of criticising them encourage effective learning.
21) Feedback of results helps a learner know his shortcomings and correct them. It also serves as a motivation.
22) Paying attention to what is being taught promotes effective learning.
23) Reasons for punishment----correctional, retributive, deterrent.
24) Punishment is the process in which a response is followed with pain or an otherwise negative event; or when a response is followed with a removal of a positive reinforcement.
25) A punisher is any event that decreases the probability or frequency of response it follows (Coon, 2001).
26) A punisher decrease behaviour while reinforcement increases behaviour.
27) The dangers of punishment, it can be reinforcing to the punisher as the intensity of punishment increases and leads to abuse, it has a slowing down effect on the person being punished as such the person may stop altogether instead of reducing something he/she is being punished for, in this case something that is required for everyday normal living----talking, running ect, it can also make an individual being punished hate the person administering punishment or channel their aggression to their subordinates, sometimes the punisher may not be effective and rather reinforce the behaviour---criticism trap, punishment does not teach an individual how to act appropriately but suppresses inappropriate behaviour.
28) Guidelines for using punishment; Find out the alternative ways of controlling behaviour and apply them if they exist, make sure you apply punishment immediately after an inappropriate behaviour, use the minimum punishment available or risk the effectiveness of the punisher, separate the inappropriate behaviour from the person as a result do not despise the person being punished, make sure you punish every time an improper behaviour occurs as a result tolerate no exceptions, you must not be surprised when you see anger, you must have some kindness and respect when you punish.
29) Memory is an active system that receives, stores or organises, alters and recovers information (Baddeley, 1996).
30) Types of memory; sensory memory, short term memory, long term memory.
31) Sensory memory picks information from senses around as, it last about 1-2 seconds.
32) Short term memory acts as a storehouse for small amounts of information---information is stored here by paying attention and rehearsing.
33) Long term memory is a place where memory is kept for a long period of time; sometimes as long as a person’s life.
34) Rehearsal means mentally reviewing a material
35) Forgetting is the inability to retrieve memory that has been formed.
36) Reasons why we forget; failure to form memory, insufficient cues, failure to use memory, interference which is the tendency of new memories to impair our ability to retrieve old memories and vice versa, Suppression: it is a conscious effort to put something out of memory, Repression: unconscious effort to force something out of memory.
37) Psychologists have recommended Self-Regulated learning as a means of improving memory.
38) It includes; setting specific learning goals, plan a learning strategy, be your own teacher ,monitor your progress, reinforce yourself, evaluate your progress and goals, take corrective action.
39) How to improve memory: Get feedback of what you are learning, Practice recitation, rehearse what you have learnt (this is done mentally not audibly), Practise selective reading (by highlighting main points), Over learn the material, Sleep right after studies (it reduces interference), review what you have learnt.
40) Importance of motivation: it connects observable behaviour to internal states, it accounts for variability in behaviour, it explains perseverance despite adversity, and it connects biology to behaviour, it energies us and makes as active, it gives us direction in life, it aids performance, Primary motives aid survival.
41) Motivation is the internal sate or condition that activates and gives direction to our thoughts feelings and actions. (Lahey, 2003)
42) Motivation is a process, in initiates our intentions, it sustains the actions initiated, and it directs the actions towards a desired goal.
43) It usually begins with a need leading to a drive which activates a response designed to achieve a goal.
44) Need---internal deficiency, drive---an energized motivational state, response----an action or series of actions, goal----the target of motivational behaviour.
45) Beyond internal needs to incentives; pull of external stimuli and push of internal needs. The pull exerted by a goal is called its incentive value---a goal’s appeal beyond its ability to fill a need.
46) Primary motives are based on biological needs we require for survival----hunger, thirst, self preservation or avoidance of pain, air, sleep, elimination of waste from our bodies, regulation of our body temperature.
47) Primary drives maintain the equilibrium or homeostasis of our bodies. There are ideal states in the body for body temperature, concentration of glucose in the blood, and blood pressure.
48) If the body deviates from these ideal levels, automatic reactions restore the equilibrium.
49) The hypothalamus regulates many motives and emotions including hunger; it is located in the forebrain.
50) The lever and upper small intestines can regulate or detect blood sugar levels.
51) Importance of the hypothalamus in regulating hunger; it detects and regulates sugar levels in the body; it detects the amount of fat in the body as such it manages body weight.
52) Psychological aspect of hunger include: Maturation and learning (socialization), emotions( anxiety—eat more, depressed—eat less), incentives, obesity
53) Factors that influence obesity: diet, emotions, genetics or traits, inadequate or no regular exercise.
54) Human sex drive is influenced by: the mind, the culture we find ourselves in, our emotional state
55) Stimulus motives are needed for stimulation and information such as curiosity, exploration, manipulation and physical contact.
56) They are not necessary for survival.
57) Arousal refers to the activation of the body and the central nervous system. At zero---Dead, low----asleep, moderate-----during normal daily activities, high-----excited, panic.
58) People who are high on sensation turn to be; bold, are independent, value change, report having more sexual partners and more likely to smoke.
59) People who are low on sensation turn to be; orderly, nurturing, giving and enjoy the company of others.
60) The ideal level of arousal for performance is moderate.
61) How to cope with test anxiety: rehearse, Preparation, Restructuring thought (thinking positively), relaxation.
62) Test anxiety refers to high levels of arousal and worry that seriously impairs test performance.
63) Secondary motives do not have any connection with biological drives but are purely learned or acquired.
64) They are related to affiliation, approval, status, security and achievement.
65) The need for achievement is the desire to excel or meet some internalized standard of excellence (McClelland, 1961).
66) People with this need; enjoy challenges and avoid goals that are too easy, endeavour to do well, do not succumb to failure, more likely to earn better grades as students, likely to get promotions and often peruse carriers as entrepreneurs.
67) People who desire to have power want their importance to be visible (they want to prove to others clearly and without any reasonable doubt that they are important), they spend a lot of money on expensive clothes, exploit relationships (relationship of convenience).
68) Need for power is the desire to have social impart or control over others.
69) People low on need for achievement are; motivated strongly by the desire to avoid failure, they set low goal everyone can achieve or goals that are too high and impossible to achieve, more likely to quite when they face difficulties.
70) Ryan and Deci (2000) say the need for achievement is driven by either intrinsic motivation or extrinsic motivation or both.
71) Extrinsic motivation is based on external rewards while intrinsic motivation is based on internal pleasure and gratification in accomplishing a particular goal.
72) The key to success is drive and determination(Talent is natured by dedication and hard work), commitment of parents to expose their children to different activities, intensive practice and expect coaching, Self confidence(the believe in once self that something can be achieved)
73) Ways of improving self confidence by Druckman and Bjork (1994): set specific and challenging goals that are attainable, do not rush, learn before you prefect, get expert advice, get support and encouragement from others, and learn from professionals.
74) In anxious situations and painful experiences people turn to affiliate with others, others affiliate for friendship and in event of chronic illment.
75) According to Abraham Maslow our motives are organised in a hierarchy.
76) Physiological needs----safety needs-----love and Belonging Needs-----Esteem Needs( lower—respect for others, need for status, fame, glory, recognition, attention, reputation, appreciation, dignity, dominance and higher-----self respect, confidence, competence, achievement, mastery, independence and freedom)-----Self actualization.
77) Primary or physiological needs and secondary or security needs.
78) Primary needs---air, water, food, sleep, excretion, shelter
79) Characteristic of self actualization(based on Jones and Crandall, 1986); you must be dedicated to a mission beyond your personal selfish interest in life, believe that people are essentially good and trustworthy, show love to others even though you may dislike their behaviour, feel adequate to deal with the challenges of life, accept your weakness, don’t depend on the approval of others by being yourself, are able to express your feelings even when they are unpopular, are able to accept all your emotions even negative ones, are not afraid to fail.
80) Intrinsically motivated people work harder and respond to challenges by even working harder; they enjoy their work more and perform creatively and effectively.
81) Extrinsically motivated people work for promotion, praise, salary, conditions of work ect.
82) Intrinsic motivation fuels achievement rather than extrinsic motivation that ends when the external reward ends.
83) Extrinsic rewards can be given when the behaviour occurs infrequently, or if the intrinsic motivation for the behaviour is deemed to be too little.
84) Praise should be given to a child if the child was successful by his/her own effort and not talent or ability, if the praise is sincere and does not suggest the controlling of the child, if it doesn’t compare the child to other children, when the child has been successful knowing that he/she is achieving a standard that has been set for him/her by his/her parents.
85) Sensation is the immediate response in the brain caused by excitation of a sensory organ. (Coon ,2001)
86) Perception is the mental process of organising sensations into meaningful patterns. (Coon ,2001)
87) The five main senses: sight, hearing, smell, touch, taste.
88) Stimulus is converted into neural impulses for the brain to understand.
89) Attributes of our senses; they are a window to the world as we are made more aware of our surroundings by them, they are converted to neural impulses to enable the brain understand, our senses are selective and we tend to give more attention to important things, they are adaptive
90) Characteristics of things that get more of our attention; they are usually more intense, louder, brighter, larger, repetitive.
91) Factors that influence perception include motivation; as such students who are hungry are more likely to interpret pictures which are not clear as food, males who are sexually aroused perceive females as being physically attractive, People who are anxious are likely to interpretate sentences which are not clear as threatening, children from poor socioeconomic backgrounds are more likely to estimate the size of a coin as being big than children from higher income backgrounds.
92) Other factors are: learning experience of people in different cultures(socialization), Age, religious beliefs, educational background(level of education), your values( how you where brought up)
93) Gestalt Psychologist assert that the following can cause the formation of an image; nearness(stimulus that are near each other tend to be grouped together in perception), similarity (stimulus that are similar in size, shapes, colour turn to be grouped together), closure (join pieces of information that are disconnected in order to perceive whole forms), contiguity, common region (stimuli that are found within a common region or areas tend to be seen as a group), continuity (visual elements that permit lines, curves or movements to continue in a direction already established tend to be grouped together).
94) Perceptual constancies are whereby we believe something does not change even though we view it from different angles.
95) There are 4 types of perceptive constancies :( Brightness constancies, colour constancy) ---do not change under different light conditions, size constancy----familiar objects do not change in perceived size at different distance, Shape constancy.
96) An illusion occurs when you mind incorrectly interprets stimulus patterns.
97) Illusions fool us by creating monocular depth cues.
98) Typical illusions become more likely under the following conditions; when the stimulus is unclear, when information is missing, when the elements are combine in unusual ways, when familiar patterns are not present.
99) An eye witness is someone who saw an event and can give evidence about it.
100) An eye witness report is a report by someone who was a first hand observer to an event and that report is needed to find out more facts about the event.
101) Some factors affecting the accuracy of an eye witness report; stress----weapon focus(the tendency to focus ones attention on the attackers weapon), the time period of exposure to the event----short time, the way eyewitnesses are questioned, Attitudes and expectations, Interference from post event information( filling gaps to make story believable), the confidence of the eyewitness-----can be over-confident, colour perception( monochromatic light alters colour)
102) Some factors to minimize errors in eyewitness testimony during line-up; train police interviewers(eye witness must first offer their own uninterrupted recollection of the event, interviewers can then jog the memory), remind the witness that the suspect may or may not be in the parade----a blank line up could be used first, make eyewitness respond yes or no to a sequence of people, Avoid situations where a witness has to stop, think and analytically compare faces as accurate identifications turn to be automatic and effortless, do not let the line up be too contrasting where only one person looks like the culprit.
103) Ways of becoming a better eyewitness; Do not forget that perceptions are developed from reality; ask questions like is what I am seeing accurate, can there be a another way of interpreting what I am seeing, Be aware of perceptual sets such as labels and stereotyping (don’t judge people based on where they live, their religion or ethnic background), be aware that emotions and motives have influence on perception since you may be convinced by your own interests, needs, desires and emotions. Be attentive and pay attention to others and your surroundings.
104) Ways of improving the accuracy of your perception; break perceptual habits and interrupt habits that you have become used to(do something new for a change), develop the habit of testing reality once a while in your life,
105) Test reality in the following ways; ask questions, seek clarification, identify other sources of information you have, look out for extraordinary experiences.
106) Reasons why people form interpersonal relationships; Friendship, social support, search for approval, to alleviate our fears and anxieties
107) Friendship is the first relationship we form outside the family
108) Some characteristics of friendship; Companionship---share similar values, Respect---work together to resolve differences, Acceptance, Help---support and sharing, Trust, Loyalty, Mutuality, Reciprocity.
109) Intimate partnership includes; sexual desire, sexual expression, greater demand for exclusiveness, deeper levels of caring.
110) How to make friends; find people with similar interest to your own, be a good listener, take risks by making new friends
111) How to be a good friend; be trustworthy, disclose yourself, be supportive and kind, develop your capacity for intimacy, don’t expect perfection
1. Some reasons for friendship; Physical proximity----we are generally attracted to people whom we have frequent contact with, physically attractiveness-----the halo effect( the tendency to generalize a favourable impression to unrelated personal characteristics)
2. • Because of the halo effect we assume that attractive people are likable, intelligent, warm, witty, mentally healthy and socially skilled(Feingold,1992)
3. • Advantages of being physically beautiful; they are less lonely, less socially anxious, more popular, socially skilled.
4. • Other Factors that influence attraction; competence, similarity( age, interest, attitudes, beliefs), self disclosure
5. • Self Disclosure involves revealing personal information that we ordinarily would not reveal because of the risk involved.
6. • Over disclosure is self disclosure that exceeds what is appropriate for a relationship or social situation. It gives rise to suspicion and reduces attraction.
7. • Love includes; trust, caring, respect, loyalty, interest and concern for the other partner.
8. • Sex brings excitement and passion to a relationship; it adds fascination and pleasure to a relationship.
9. • Commitment is characterized by; responsibility, reliability and faithfulness.
10. • According to Robert Sternberg, love is composed of; intimacy---feeling of closeness we have for someone we love, passion (romance, attraction and sexuality) and commitment.
11. • He asserts that these three elements can be enlarged, diminished and combined in different ways.
12. intimacy alone =liking
14. passion alone =infatuation
16. commitment alone =empty love
18. Intimacy + passion =romantic love
20. Passion + commitment = fatuous love
22. Intimacy +commitment =compassionate love
24. intimacy + passion + commitment =consummate love
26. • Some challenges in relationships; Self Disclosure, Unequal or premature commitment, Unrealistic expectations(when you are expecting your partner to change, when you believe that your partner has the same opinions, interest, priorities and goals as you),When you become competitive, when you become jealous,
27. • Secure attachment is characterized by: caring, intimacy, Supportiveness and understanding.
28. • People with Avoidant attachment; redraw when the relationship is going through rough times, suspicious and aloof, sceptical about love, see others as unreliable or overly eager to commit to a relationship, get nervous when people are getting too emotional close, avoid intimacy.
29. • People with Ambivalent Attachment; regard themselves as misunderstood and unappreciated, seeing friends and lovers as unreliable and are not ready to commit themselves to lasting relationships, worrying that their romantic partners don’t really love them or may leave them, have doubts about their partners dependability and trustworthiness although they want to be extremely close.
30. • Successful Relationships; Good communication skills---are not always verbal(non verbal---looking at or away, leaning forward or backward, smile or frown, touch, eye contact, proximity),Self Disclosure, Listening and feedback(qualities of a good listener: Empathy, warmth, respect, Genuineness), Conflict resolution----(find out what each partner wants, identify various alternatives for getting what each person wants, decide how to negotiate, solidify the agreements, review and renegotiate), ability to ask for and give support.
31. • Ending a relationship----give the relationship a fair chance before breaking up, be fair and honest, be tactful and compassionate, and if you are the rejected person give yourself time to resolve your anger and pain as such do not rush into another relationship.
32. • Wellness is a choice to assume responsibility for the quality of your life.
33. • Health can be defined as the general condition of the body or mind, especially in terms of the presence or absence of illnesses, injuries, or impairments.
34. • There are at least 6 categories of wellness; Physical wellness-----eating well, exercising, avoiding harmful habits, making responsible decisions about sex, learning about and recognizing the symptoms of disease, getting regular medical and dental checkups and taking steps to avoid injuries.
35. • Emotional wellness includes; optimism, trust, self esteem, self confidence, self control, satisfying relationships, ability to share feelings.
36. • Intellectual wellness; openness to new ideas, capacity to question and think critically, motivation to master new skills, having a sense of humour, having a sense of creativity and curiosity
37. • Spiritual wellness; have a set of guiding beliefs, principles and values that give meaning and purpose to your life, have the capacity for love, compassion, forgiveness, altruism, joy and fulfilment.( it suppresses cynicism, anger, fear, anxiety, self absorption and pessimism.
38. • Interpersonal and social wellness; having mutual loving and supportive people in your life, learning good communication skills, developing the capacity for intimacy, participate and contributing to your community, country and the world.
39. • Environmental and Planetary wellness ;(egs of environmental threats; ultraviolet radiation in sunlight, Air and water pollution, lead in old house paint, second-hand tobacco smoke in indoor air.
40. • Why people don’t seek help; to prevent others from knowing their problems, afraid of what their own friends may say or think, may not know who to go for help, suspicious that they may be force for treatment without consent.
41. • Psychological health is the presence of wellness.
42. • Factors affecting psychological health: Realism, Acceptance---ready to accept yourself and others(feel good about yourself, what you are capable of doing, roles you are given to play, optimistic about what you can expect from people and ready to interact with people who are not ready to change), Autonomy---(not afraid of expressing your opinions though others may disapprove, find guidance from you own self, values and feelings, act because they choose to and not because they are driven or pressured), Creativity.
43. • Ways of growing psychologically, develop an adult identity( see themselves realistically and can access their weaknesses and strengths without relying on the opinions of others, appreciate what they share in common with other and see themselves as unique), developing intimacy---(sharing, open communication, long term commitment and love), develop values and purpose in your life, dealing with your anger
44. • Stress is an event or situations that cause people to fell tension, pressure or negative emotions as anxiety and anger or Stress is our body’s response to events or situation around us.
45. • Psychologically stress is a process that involves a person’s interpretation and response to a threatening event or the body’s reaction to any change that requires an adjustment or response.
46. • Characteristics of Stress: it is normal, often experience because of problems or extreme fear pertaining to physical threat, it can have both negative and positive effects, if not managed can become chronic and lead to both physical and mental illness.
47. • Some myths about stress: stress is the same for everybody, stress is always bad for you, stress is inevitable, the most popular techniques for reducing stress are the best ones, no symptoms means no stress, only major symptoms of stress require attention.
48. • Stressors are the circumstances that cause stress. They can be categorized into three groups; catastrophic events, major life changes and daily hassles. In addition thinking about unpleasant past events and anticipating unpleasant future events.
49. • Daily hassles occur more frequently. They can be grouped into; College Stressors (Academic, interpersonal, time and financial) stressors, job-related stressors(working overtime, worries about performance, salary and job security, interaction with bosses, co-workers and customers), social stressors(gender, ethnic minorities, economic disadvantage, disability),Environmental stressors(intrusive noises, smells or sights, natural disasters, industrial accidents, living in poor/violent neighbourhoods ), internal stressor(unrealistic expectation, physical/emotional state).
50. • A Canadian scientist by name Hans Selye proposed a three stage model of the stress response, he termed general adaptation syndrome. They are alarm, resistance, exhaustion.
51. • How stress affects the body; heart beats faster, blood flow to brain and muscles increase, muscles tension increases, digestion stops, faster breathing to supply muscles with oxygen.
52. • Symptoms of body stress; moody and hypersensitivity, restlessness and anxiety, depression, anger and resentment, lack of confidence, apathy, urge to laugh or cry at inappropriate times.
53. • How stress can affect your body physically; headaches, digestive problems, muscle tension and pain, sleep disturbances, fatigue, chest pain, irregular heartbeat, high blood pressure, weight gain or loss, asthma or shortness of breath, skin problems, decreased sex drive.
54. • How stress can affect your behaviour; eating more or less, sleeping too much or too little, isolating yourself from others, neglecting your responsibility, increasing alcohol and drug use, nervous habits(Teeth grinding or jaw clenching), overdoing activities as exercising or shopping, over reacting to unexpected problems.
55. • The sympathetic nerves are part of the nervous system which is active during stress or danger. It pumps adrenaline into the blood stream during danger.
56. • Stress compromises the ability to fight off diseases and infections, causes difficulty to conceive a baby, stunts growth in children
57. • Long term stress can cause or worsen the following: Heart attack, Hypertension, stroke, cancer, diabetes, depression, obesity, substance abuse, ulcers, memory loss, insomnia, infertility.
58. • The relationship between stress and ill health is that, it is a risk factor to developing diseases and breaks down the immune system.
59. • Stress management simply means identifying and analyzing the problem related to stress and applying a variety of effective measures to alter either the source of stress or the experience of stress.
60. • The aim of stress management is to help the individual function at his/her optimum level in a healthy and positive manner.
61. • Ways to manage stress; Exercise, good nutrition, avoid excessive use of alcohol, avoid smoking(smoking can cause impotency, dental diseases, premature skin wrinkling, premature baldness and reduced fertility), rest, encourage yourself, learn to say no if you don’t want to do something or can’t do it, Time management(don’t be overcommitted and procrastinating, set realistic goals and set your priorities right, budget enough time for what you want to do and do your favourite task first, give yourself a break, delegate others), cultivate a sense of humour(elevates heart rate, aids digestion, eases pain), think constructively----consider positive solutions to your problem, support from others, seek professional help.
62. • Cortiso increases blood pressure and frees fatty acids into the bloodstream.
63. • First report of HIV/AIDS in the world was in USA---1981 and in Ghana-----1986.
64. • Some varieties of sexual behaviour; Erotic fantasy and masturbation, touching and foreplay, oral-genital stimulation, anal sex and sexual intercourse.
65. • Paraphilias are problematic sexual behaviours as inflicting pain on others, making obscene phone calls, having sex with children and peeping into the homes of strangers.
66. • HIV is transmitted ; sexually, blood-borne, implacental, by sharing infected sharp and piercing objects
67. • Behaviour change communication involves the ABCD approach to prevent the spread of STD’s.
68. • A---abstain, B-----be faithful, C-----use a condom, D----don’t share sharp and piercing objects.
69. • Ways of finding healthy sexual values; know yourself and work towards accepting your sexual needs and orientation, don’t be bound by popular sexual standards you are personally uncomfortable with(from friends and media),examine what your religion has to say about sexual matters, think ahead of various sexual situations and scenarios and anticipate how you will react to them, take opportunities to clarify your sexual values( read educational books, groups discussions and classes)
70. • Characteristics of responsible adult sexual behaviour; they must be open and honest communication( what does sex mean to either partner),agreement on sexual activities(no use of force),sexual privacy(do not reveal private information about the relationship to others, using contraception(to prevent unwanted babies), safer sex(be honest about health conditions),sober sex, taking responsibility.
71. • A Drug is any substance, natural or artificial, other than food that by its chemical nature alters structure or function in the living organism.
72. • Illicit drugs are drugs which are unlawful to posses and use.
73. • Drug misuse refers to the use of prescribe drugs in greater amounts than, or for purposes other than those prescribed by a physician or dentist.
74. • Drug abuse refers to the use of a substance in a manner, amount or situation such that the uses of the drug possess social, legal, occupational, psychological or physical problems.
75. • Characteristics of Drug Dependency: Developing tolerance to the substance(increasing dosage as time goes on), experiencing redrawal (going for the drug when its concentration decreases in your blood), Expressing a persistent desire to cut down or regulate substance use(mostly unsuccessful), taking the substance in larger amounts or over a longer period than was originally intended, Spending a great deal of time obtaining the substance using the substance or recovering from its effects, giving up or reducing important social, school, work or recreational activities because of the substance use, continuing to use the substance in spite of recognizing that it is contribution to a psychological or physical problem.
76. • Drug addiction is characterized by; frequent use of the drug, great determination to acquire and use the drug, taking about the drug most often, zeal to know more about the drug.
77. • Characteristics associated with addictive behaviour; There is reinforcement(it is made stronger by another addictive behaviour), there is compulsion or craving, there is loss of control, there is escalation, there are negative consequences(health, legal, financial, academic, personal relationship, job) problems,
78. • Characteristics of drug free people; they perceive drugs as risky, usually have positive self esteem, self control, social competence, optimism, academic achievement, regular church attendance, people from strict homes against substance abuse, people who feel supported and cared for.
79. • Why some people use drugs; Peer pressure, to imitate adult models who use drugs, to experiment, to reduce unpleasant psychological feeling as anxiety, depression and feeling of worthlessness, to enhance bodily sensations, to increase psychological and physical performance by reducing unpleasant bodily sensations like pain, insomnia, tiredness and physiological needs like sleep and hunger, To transcend the limit of their body or do what they would not normally be able to do.
80. • Caution in using memory enhancing drugs: psychoactive drugs may impair memory eventually behavior and lead to death, uncontrolled dosages of may lead to death and disrupt memory, use of alcohol leads to easy memory loss.
81. • Commonly abused drugs; the Opiods (morphine and heroin), Sedative-hypnotics (Barbiturates and benzodiazepines), Stimulants (Cocaine, amphetamines), Hallucinogens (lysergic acid diethylamide, mescaline), Cannabis (marijuana and Hashish) and Inhalants (glue, gasoline, aerosols.
82. • Heroin was introduced as a cough suppressant and non-addictive substitute for morphine in 1898
83. • Opium’s may suppress coughing, reduce movement of the intestines and induce a state of psychological indifference.
84. • Morphine is a potent pain reliever.
85. • Withdrawal symptoms of opioids include; kicking movements in the legs, anxiety, insomnia, nausea, sweating, cramps, vomiting, diarrhoea, and fever.
86. • Abrupt withdrawal symptoms of Barbiturates; shaking, insomnia, anxiety, convulsion, delirium, and death if suddenly discontinued.
87. • Benzodiazepines (valium and Librium) are used in the treatment of anxiety, insomnia and epilepsy.
88. • Cocaine is used medically to produce anaesthesia for surgery of the nose, throat and to contract blood vessels and reduce bleeding during surgery.
89. • “Crack” is a highly addictive smokable form of cocaine.
90. • Amphetamines where introduced in the 1930’s for the treatment of colds and hay fever. Today they are restricted to hyperactivity in children, narcolepsy
91. • Amphetamines heighten alertness, elevate mood, decrease fatigue and the need for sleep
92. • Withdrawal from amphetamines particularly if the drug has been injected intravenously produces severe depression.
93. • Hallucinogens are occasionally used in the treatment of dying patients, drug abusers and alcoholics. They have no apparent redrawal symptoms.
94. • Cannabis sativa is the source of both marijuana and hashish. Effects are a state of relaxation, accelerated heart rate, perceived slowing of time, heightened sense of hearing, taste, touch and smell.
95. • Cannabis has been used experimentally for treating alcoholism, seizures, pain, and glaucoma. Its active ingredient is delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC).
96. • Inhalants depress the central nervous system when sniffed. Effects of using inhabitants are headache, nausea, and drowsiness. Sniffing inhalants can impair vision, judgment and muscle and reflex control.
97. • Isoamyl nitrite has legitimate medical functions as a blood vessel dilator.
98. • Some caution before drug use; know the risk involved, is using the drug well-matched with your goals, know your ethical beliefs about drug use, know the financial cost involved, know your reason for drug use and whether it is the best option
99. • Activities to consider to avoid or reduce drug use; introduce yourself to something new, exercise, visit a counsellor, focus on areas in your life where you are competent, look for new friends, join religious groups
Free Short Notes on the Emergence of Islam for Exam purpose only
1) Islam begun in the Middle East during the 7th century.
2) Judaism and Christianity also sprang up from the Middle East .
3) Islam developed into an empire after 100 years of its formation
4) Arabia the birthplace of Islam is the largest peninsular in the world
5) The Arabs developed a way of life adapted to desert conditions herding goats and camels
6) Arabs in the desert where loosely organised into tribes with a strong code of honour.
7) Independence of Arabic warriors prevented unity and promoted different feuds
8) Arabia was an important link btw the Mediterranean world, Asia, and the east coast of Africa .
9) Some Arabs where traders who lived along the Red sea .
10) Arabs where in contact with the Greco-Roman world, India , china and Africa thru trade.
11) Mecca
12) Pilgrims travelled to Mecca
13) The Kaaba was a scared shrine that housed all the Arabian gods. It also housed the black stone—probably a meteorite, it was believed to be sent from heaven.
14) Mohammad was born in Mecca
15) His parents died when he was young(6) and he was raised by his relatives.(uncle)
16) Mohammed married Khadija at age 25.
17) Khadija was wealthy widows who run her husband’s business.
18) He became a successful merchant but was troubled by the violence in the world and often with into the desert to pray
19) Mohammed believed that angle Gabriel told him that God had chosen him to be his prophet, and his duty was to proclaim that there was only one God
20) Muhammad and his followers fled Mecca
21) Yathrib was a rival commercial town, later called medina and city of the Prophet.
22) Muslims call Muhammad’s journey from Mecca to Medina
23) The year 622AD was made the first year of the Muslim calendar.
24) Muhammad gained power as both political and religious leader in Medina
25) In 630 Muhammad captured the city of Mecca
26) Muhammad died in 632AD.
27) Islam means submission and Muslims believe that they must submit to the will of Allah.
28) They are five pillars of Islam being duties of faithful Muslims
29) First is the believe in one God Allah, second is duty in prayer-5 times daily, third is alms giving, fourth is fasting during the holy month of Ramadan, fifth is making a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in one’s life time.
30) Islam has no formal church or clergy, an imam leads prayers in a mosque
31) The Koran is a Muslim holy book.
32) The Koran became the instrument for law and government in the Islamic world
33) Arabic is the common language of Muslims since the Koran was written in Arabic.
34) Muhammad accepted old and new testaments as God’s word.
35) He called Jewish and Christians “people of the book”
36) Muslim and Christian common believes,--one God, Judgement day, Abraham, Moses and Jesus where great prophets.
37) Muslims considered Muhammad as God’s final messenger who had the highest authority.
38) Muhammad established rules for ethical behaviour.
39) The Koran gave women a legal, economic status previously not enjoyed in Arabia .
40) Before Muhammad Arabian women had no property rights.
41) The Koran permitted divorce on the grounds that a man returned the woman’s dowry.
42) The Koran forbade killing unwanted baby girls.
43) A woman always had some form of protection and her main duty was to obey her husband, care for the children and manage the household.
44) Between 622 and 732 Islam spread with amazing speed into Palestine , Syria and Spain
45) By 732 Muslim forces crossed the Pyrenees Mountains into southern France Fertile Crescent east Indus valley.
46) Reasons for the spread of Islam, Believe in one God and equality of all believers, they did not need a church or clergy in order to practice their faith, Muhammad and his successors united Arabs and gave them a strong sense of purpose, Arab soldiers believed that if they died fighting for the faith they would immediately enter paradise, weakness of neighbouring Byzantine and Persian empires( successive wars had exhausted them and many people were dissatisfied with their rule, some welcomed the Arabs as liberators
47) When Muslim armies conquered parts of the Byzantine Empire some Christians and Jews and Zoroastrians were ready to accept Islamic teachings.
48) Muslims did not force people to convert.
49) Non Muslims paid a special tax and could worship as they choose.
50) Muslim conquers where not anxious to convert people as it would reduce revenue.
51) Abu Bakr succeeded Prophet Mohammad after his death.
52) A caliph acted as both political and religious leader and used the Koran to rule.
53) Power struggles involved the election of the first four caliphs after which a leading family in Mecca
54) They made Damascus in Syria
55) Mecca
56) Under the Umayyad, Arabs absorbed ideas from Hellenistic and Byzantine civilizations.
57) Some people begun to assert independence in the empire, competing branches developed—Sunnite, Shiite.
58) The Sunnite and Shiite differed over who was rightful successor to Muhammad.
59) The numerous Sunnites supported the Umayyad caliph while the Shiites support a religious leader who traced his ancestry back to Ali, Muhammad’s son in law.
60) Shiites broke into many groups and rallied support among people discontented with Arab rule.
61) In 750 the Abbasids overthrew the Umayyad. However a member of the Umayyad dynasty made himself caliph in Spain North Africa also remains outside Abbasids rule.
62) Abbasid rulers built a new capital in Baghdad
63) In the 700’s under Harun al Rashid, the Islamic Empire enjoyed a golden age.
64) Abbasid rulers left the business of govt to corrupt officials, after 1000 yrs the empire was fragmented.
65) In the 11 cent the Seljuk Turks invaded the Islamic Empire, they converted to Islam but had different traditions from those of Arabs.
66) The rule of Seljuk’s in Palestine
67) In 1258 the Mongols destroyed Baghdad
68) The ottoman Turks reunited Egypt , Syria Iraq and Arabia into an Islamic state to defeat the Mongols. It lasted until 1918.
69) Muslims blended Greek, Roman, Byzantine, Persian and Indian cultures to form theirs.
70) Muslim merchants handled the products of three continents---Africa, Asia and Europe .
71) The Abbasid capital boasted hospitals, libraries, palaces, public gardens and street lights.
72) Arabs introduced letter of credit in place of cash.
73) They issued receipts for payment and bills of lading that listed all goods in a shipment.
74) Steel was used in swords and textiles as cotton, gauze and satin where very impt.
75) Commence, manufacture, Agriculture---improvement lead to production of more food to feed large city populations.
76) The Koran was the focus of Muslim scholars and legal interpretation where made from it which became law codes.
77) Islamic law, common beliefs and the use of Arabic helped unite Muslims on three continents.
78) In Centres of learning such as the house of Wisdom in Baghdad Muslims learnt Roman, Jewish, Persian and Indian texts
79) Guided by ancient Greek texts, Muslim doctors perfected in techniques for diagnosing and treating diseases.
80) In the 9th cent Muhammad al-Razi published a huge medical encyclopaedia called “the comprehensive work in Medicine”. In it he detailed the symptoms of such contagious diseases as smallpox and measles.
81) Muslims has an advanced system of medical training which include qualifying examination doctors and pharmacists.
82) Muslim mathematician adopted the decimal system and the system of numeral from India
83) With the decimal system Muslims made advancement in algebra and trigonometry.
84) Muslim alchemists advanced the science of chemistry. They invented equipment such as beakers and crystallizing dishes.
85) One Muslim scientist proposed that the earth was round and accurately estimated its circumference. He also suggested that the earth rotated on its axis
86) Muslims invented the Mariner’s compass by using magnetic chine needles.
87) The astrolabe was another Muslim invention.
88) Muslims put up mosques in architectural form having a blend of Roman, Byzantine and Persian styles. Towers outside the mosques are referred to as Minarets.
89) Averroes a Spanish Muslim tried to reconcile the teachings of Aristotle with Islam.
90) Poets held an honoured place in the Islamic world.
91) CIVILISATION----ECONOMIC PROSPERITY, TRADITIONAL LEARNING, ACHIEVEMENTS IN MEDICINE, MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE, ARTS AND LITERATURE.
92) Avicenna was born in 980 near bukkara in Persia
93) He learned the Koran and mastered geometry, logic, law and Arabic literature.
94) He taught himself physics, theology, mathematics, astronomy, philosophy and medicine.
95) He was a successful physician at age 16; he treated Persian nobles, chief ministers, rulers.
96) He wrote over 100 books on astronomy, music, philosophy, medicine and poetry.
97) His book on philosophy reflected teachings of Aristotle and Plato
98) His major work was “the Canon of Medicine” translated into Latin in 1100
99) It remained the leading textbook among Muslims and Christians for about 600 yrs.
100) He explained how disease could be spread by contaminated water bodies
101) He studied over 750 medical remedies and published the first handbook that told physicians the remedies for different diseases.
QUESTIONS
1) Locate: Arabia, Mecca , Medina , Damascus , and Baghdad
2) Identify: Kaaba, Muhammad, Koran, People of the Book, Sunnite, Shiite
3) Define: hejira, mosque, caliph
4) Describe the five pillars of Islam
5) Give one example of how the Koran improved the position of the Arab women.
6) List two reasons for the rapid spread of lslam
7) When did the Islamic empire enjoy its golden age?
8) Identify: Muhammad al-Razum, Averroes, Omar Khayya
9) Define: minaret
10) What commercial practices did the Arabs develop?
11) How did the Arabs preserve much ancient learning?
12) Describe one contribution Muslims made to medicine.
Sunday, April 6, 2008
A Free summary of Goody Blake and Harry Gill
The narrator expresses a wish to know what the matter is
The narrator makes a rhetorical remark implying that there is nothing that does not hurt Harry Gill
We learn that Harry Gill's teeth always chatter
We are told that throughout the whole year, whether rain or shine, be it in March, December or July We learn that when Harry was young he was stout and a lusty drover, thus Harry was now old
Goody Blake spent all her day time spurning and then three hours at night spurning as well. The narrator tells us that two old dames(women) in Dorsetshire would usually boil their pottage by the same fire and share one dwelling as well, however Goody Blake lived alone, why was this so? Was she despised by others or was there no one to pair with her? didn't she have any family what so ever? We can however confirm that Goody Blake was a woman and not a man.
We are told that there was joy for her when in winter the winds at night where strong and had uprooted or brought together many wood or sticks. However never in her entire life whether well or sick as everyone who knew her would testify had she ever gathered enough wood or sticks to last her Three days
We learn that Harry Gill was delighted to find her there pulling out sticks from the hedge. While kneeling with her arm held by Harry and the other to the sky, she prayed to God asking that
Harry Gill spends the whole of the next day complaining that he was cold and very chill All of this yielded no positive result and Harry was still cold even with blankets pinned all over his body,
Was Harry Gill cold because he had spent so many nights out in the cold trying to catch Goody Blake “destroying his hedge” or was it because of Goody Blake’s curse?
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)