1) 1350—1600 Renaissance Period
2) Renaissance—French word(renevatio)---rebirth
3) Scholars revived the learning of ancient Greece and Rome
4) They dislike the “dark ages” of Medieval Europe and thought of a rebirth of civilisation.
5) The Renaissance was both a worldly and religious age.
6) Fierce debates over question of faith and salvation led to the reformation
7) The reformation---movement---divided Christians in Europe into different groups.
8) By 1600 modern Europe was born.
9) During 1300 economic distress, war and the Black Death had swept across Europe.
10) Renaissance began in city state of northern Italy and spread to northern Europe.
11) Middle age---many Italian towns expanded---city states (CS)--govern itself and surrounding country side.
12) Rulers of CS had independence to experiment on gov’t and larger world ideas.
13) Late Middle age (MA) ---Italian city states were wealthy from trade and industry.
14) Merchants from Venice, Genoa, Pisa controlled most profitable trade routes to the eastern Mediterranean
15) Others like Florence thrived on the sale of manufactured goods, especially wool cloth.
16) Italian bankers made huge profits by financing commercial ventures and making loans to princes and popes.
17) Wealth of city states supported the renaissance.
18) Merchants and Bankers----powerful------middle class—political and economic leaders
19) Feudalism never fully developed in northern Italy---landowning nobles had lesser authority.
20) Middle class---concern for education and individual achievement, ----became patrons and supporters of art.
21) During 1400 the Medici family ruled Florence.
22) Giovanni de’ Medici’s bank flourish over 30 yrs aft it’s Establishment In 1397.
23) His son cosimo and great grandson Lorenzo controlled the gov’t in Florence.
24) Lorenzo is also known as the magnificent. He was a skilled architect.
25) The Medici proud of Florence shared the pride by using parts of their fortune to hire local painter, sculptors, architects and silversmiths to create works of art to beautify Florence.
26) People in Italian city state developed interest in learning ancient Greece and Rome
27) Theology, law and medicine were highly respected subject at university.
28) During the Renaissance scholars stressed the study of humanities.
29) This included rhetoric poetry and history taught in Greek and Roman schools.
30) Those who studied this subjects where called Humanist.
31) Humanist---practical and wanted to learn more about the world, by reading text and rediscovered texts forgotten in the MA.
32) Many Humanist where devout Christians. They felt the study of humanities enriched the lives as compared to works of medieval scholars.
33) Renaissance scholars taught education was the way to become well rounded
34) Petrarch (1304-1374) ---renaissance humanist from Florence—search for old manuscripts in Europe.
35) He loved the works of Cicero—roman statesman and St. Augustine---early Christian writer.
36) He discovered how much classical heritage had been lost.
37) Inspired, others begun searching monastery libraries for ancient manuscripts.
38) They rescued many works and corrected mistakes by comparing them.
39) Some developed techniques for analyzing historical documents.
40) Lorenzo Valla exposed the (Donation of Constantine) as a forgery.
41) The document contained the word fief which was not used in Constantine’s time.
42) Renaissance writers often prepared manuscripts that told individuals how to behave.
43) “The Prince” written by Nicolo’ Machiavelli as a guide for rulers who faced unstable political conditions.
44) “The book of the Courtier” by Baldassare Castiglione described the qualities of an educated aristocrat.
45) They should learn to enjoy music, play variety of musical instruments. Speak gracefully; provide rulers with witty pleasant company.
46) Renaissance ideas spread slowly to northern Europe.
47) It took a different form in northern Europe and Spain
48) Strong feudalism in northern Europe-NE- made kings, queens and nobles take the place of merchants and bankers as chief patrons of art.
49) Renaissance scholars in NE and Spain studied the classical works of early Christians that of Greeks and Romans. What they called the simpler, purer faith of the early Christians.
50) Similarities of all renaissance writers----stressed individual achievement and classical learning, more concerned in achieving worldly success, maintained a strong faith in Christianity.
51) Renaissance ideas spread mostly through literature and arts
52) Painters and sculptors found an important place in the renaissance world.
53) During the middle ages, painters and sculptures decorated many churches and cathedrals.
54) They got little recognition as compared to renaissance painters and sculptors.
55) Renaissance artists returned to classical principles of Greek and Roman.
(CASSICAL INFLUENCE)
56) Greeks stressed on harmony and balance of nature, Romans emphasized realism.
57) Renaissance artist in Italy where inspired by roman building scattered across the land.
58) Donatello and Filippo Brunelleschi travelled from Florence to Rome in the early 1400s to sketch the ruins of ancient--- buildings, marbles and bronze statues .
59) Donatello’s sculpture of David was an individual figure with realism and grace unlike that of medieval sculptures.
60) Brunelleschi and other renaissance architects rejected medieval Gothic architecture and revived classical styles.
61) Brunelleschi roofed the cathedral of Florence with a vast dome while based on his work Michelangelo Buonarroti; years later designed Saint Peter’s Cathedral in Rome.
62) THE PAINTER, Tommaso Masaccio and Brunelleschi developed rules of perspective to give painting a more realistic look. ----3 dimensional look (NEW TECHNIQUES IN ART).
63) Artists in Flanders contributed to renaissance art by improving tempera paints (pigments of colours mixed with watered down egg yolk) that dried quickly and hindered artist from making changes once they had applied the colour. Tempera paints did not blend easily.
64) Flemish artists’ introduced oil based paints that dried more slowly and could blend easily.
65) GREAT ITALIAN ARTIST---Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael Santi.
66) Leonardo da Vinci----thought humans might use wings to fly, he dissected corpses and painted more realistic pictures and understood anatomy of humans.
67) Only 15 painting of Leonardo’s works remain including. The “Last Super” and “Mona Lisa”.
68) Michelangelo considered himself a sculptor by he was also an accomplished musician, poet, painter and architect.
69) Pope Julius II in 1508 asked Michelangelo to paint the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican. He dedicated four years of his life to this.
70) Raphael Santi was a skilful painter influence by Leonardo and Michelangelo.
71) He often painted the Madonna or mother of Jesus and the infant Jesus. He died at age 37.
ARTIST OF NORTHERN EUROPE
73) Because roman ruins lay beyond the Alps, northern European artist where less influenced by classical styles.
74) Rules of perspective and new oil based paints affected their works.
75) Flanders was the artistic centre of modern Europe.
76) Jan van Eyck a Flemish artist paintings often had a religious message. Each object had a symbolic meaning that reinforced the message of his paintings.
77) Pieter Bruegel was inspired by everyday scenes of peasants working in the country landscapes and influenced later Flemish and Dutch painters who painted scenes of daily life than religious or classical themes.
78) Other German artist where Hans Holbein and Albrecht Durer.
RENAISSANCE WRITERS
80) The middle Class—MC—in towns and cities especially enjoyed popular literature as dramatic tales and comedies.
81) Popular literature was often written in vernacular, somewhere still written in Latin.
82) Petrarch an Italian writer perfected the sonnet (a 14 line poem that expresses a complete thought).
83) Giovanni Boccaccio an Italian writer wrote the “Decameron” the first prose written in Italian.
84) Francois Rabelais a French writer’s works contained witty discussion of philosophy and politics; he created the giant Gargantua and his son Pantagruel to express his view of the world.
85) Miguel de Cervantes in a novel “Don Quixote” mocked the medieval ideals of chivalry.
86) Poet and Playwright William Shakespeare wrote tragedies, comedies and historical dramas
87) In European cities both rich and poor people attended theatres.
88) A CALL FOR REFORM
89) Renaissance writers emphasized both religious and worldly themes.
90) In the early 1500s some Christian scholars who had studied the bible and early Christian writings urged reform of the church. They wanted the church to return to the traditions based on the teachings of Jesus.
91) These reformers where called Christian humanists.
92) Desiderius Erasmus a Dutch scholar and priest led Christian humanist in northern Europe.
93) He knew Greek and could study early copies of the New Testament.
94) He used witty dialogue to point out the ignorance of some clergy in “Praise of Folly” and other works of his.
95) He criticized the church for emphasizing pomp and ritual than the teaching of Christ.
96) He remained in the church and accepted its teaching regardless.
97) Sir Thomas More a friend of Erasmus described an ideal society in his book “Utopia”
Showing posts with label HIST 102. Show all posts
Showing posts with label HIST 102. Show all posts
Monday, May 12, 2008
Wednesday, April 23, 2008
Free Short Notes on Voyages and Explorations for Exam purpose only
1. In the 1300s the commerce of the Italian city-states depended largely on trade with other Europeans cities.
2.Merchant’s ships transported good along the Mediterranean and Atlantic coasts.
3.Portugal and Spain began searching for new trade routes in the 1400s.
4.They sponsored man voyages of discovery.
5.Advancement in tech helped to make voyages of exploration possible.-----travellers reports as that of Marco Polo, info from Arab geographers, mapmakers had more accurate maps on land and sea, latitudes where included, direction of ocean currents helped navigators.
6.Sailor calculated ships latitude using astrolabe an instrument that measured the position of the stars.
7.At the time there was no instrument to measure longitude, it cud only be estimated
8.Europeans improved the magnetic compass to detect locations even when out of sight of land.
9. “Ocean voyage worthy ships” where built, Portuguese----three masted caravel---carried more sails, had more room for cargo and food supplies.
10.Europeans----Lateen or triangular sail---stern rudder allowed ships to sail closely into the wind. It was borrowed from the Arabs.
11.Because voyages of exploration where very expensive emerging national monarchs sponsored them in the 1400s and 1500s.
12. Through them they hoped to increase trade and build empires.
13.Individuals participated due to curiosity, adventure and wealth. Devout Christians wished to spread the gospel,
14. Portuguese led the way in the voyages o exploration.
15.They had been at a disadvantage in trade with Asia bcos Portugal faced the Atlantic Ocean and not the Mediterranean Sea.
16. Most spices and other goods from India were traded by merchants to the eastern Mediterranean.
17. Portugal’s rulers in the 1400s aimed at increasing the nation’s wealth, they supported voyages in search of AU
18. The wanted to share in the rich spice trade by bypassing the Italian and Muslim middlemen.
19. Prince Henry (1394 to 1460) encouraged early Portuguese explorations. He formed an informal school for sailors at Sagres.
20.There astronomers, geographers and mathematicians shared their learning with Portuguese sea captains and pilots.
21. At first Portuguese attempted creating new trade routes by conquering coastal cities in North Africa, however the Saharan caravan that that brought gold from West Africa stopped.
22. The Portuguese then decided to explore the West African coast for the source of the AU.
23. The sea route along the African coast had been unpopular because ocean currents and winds off cape Bojador often drove ships onto the rocky coast and wrecked them.
24. To avoid this Portuguese discovered a new route west of two grps of islands in the Atlantic---Madeira and Azores
25. From here they got to the south of the African coast safely.
26. The Portuguese searched for Au wherever African rivers ran into the Atlantic, however they could not travel far inland because of waterfall and rapids
27. Portuguese established trade centres along the African coast. They bought Au and Ivory from people living nearby.
28. In 1441 traders began buying slaves.
29. In 1481 King John II launched new efforts in explorations. He wanted to trade directly with Portugal and India.
30. In 1488, Bartholomew Dias arrived at the southern tip of Africa and named it the Cape of storms because was buffeted violently there
31. King John II renamed it the Cape of Good Hope since Dias had found the passage around Africa to India.
32. Under King John, Vasco da Gama in July 1497 set out with four ships from Portugal.
33. He picked an Arab pilot on his way that was helpful in their voyage to India.
34. Da Gama reached the Indian port of Calicut in May 1498.
35. Spain had devoted their energies into conquering the last Muslim Stronghold of Granada.
36. Afterward Spain wanted to profit in the spice trade of Asia.
37.When Ferdinand and Isabella completed the reconquista in 1492 they cud pursue other goals
38. Queen Isabella wished to form alliances with rulers in India and china against the Muslims
39. She believed Christopher Columbus might help Spain achieve this
40. Columbus tried to convince Portugal and then Spain to sponsor a voyage westward across the Atlantic stressing that within 2 months they could reach Asia.
41. Some people like Columbus based their estimation on the size of the earth on Ptolemy work, however Ptolemy had under-estimated the size of the earth
42. Scholars at the university of Salamanca in Spain calculated correctly that the earth was much larger and it would take abt 4 months to reach Asia and ships could not store enough food or fresh water for the journey.
43. Queen Isabella agreed to sponsor Columbus journey. 3 ships, 90 sailors—3/08/1492, left Palos.
44. On 12/10/1492 they sighted land.
45. He sailed to the Caribbean islands of Cuba and Hispaniola, the Dominican Republic and claimed the new lands for Spain by establishing settlements.
46. The Pope arranged a settlement between Portugal and Spain over their claimed of the new lands
47. Spain and Portugal signed the treaty of tordesillas in 1494; this treaty drew a line of demarcation about 1100 miles from north to south. Portugal had the rights over the lands east of the line while Spain rights where over lands west of the line.
48. Further voyages revealed that Columbus had not reached the East Indies but had discovered a huge continent.
49. Amerigo Vespucci an Italian rep for the Medici bank in Spain undertook several voyages for Spain.
50. He charted the coastline of Central America and described it as Mundus Novus a Latin phrase for New World.
51. A German mapmaker labelled the continent America in 1507, in recognition of Amerigo Vespucci
52. In 1513 Juan Ponce de Leon voyaged to find the legendary fountain of youth, he however discovered Florida.
53. Vasco de Balboa discovered the pacific ocean
54. England, the Dutch, Netherlands and France ignored the treaty of Tordesillas as it excluded them.
55. In 1497, John Cabot, an Italian sea captain agreed to sail for England.
56. Martin Frobisher returned to England with a cargo that turn out to be worthless and not gold ore.
57. • Explorers did not find a northern passage to Asia
58. • Their search greatly increased European knowledge of the world.
59. • It contributed to the establishment of new settlements
60. • After Vasco da Gama’s voyage Portuguese could buy spices directly from Asia.
61. • Portugal dominated the spice trade in Europe.
62. • Portugal got pepper from India, cinnamon from Ceylon and cloves and nutmeg from the East Indies.
63. • Missionaries accompanied Portuguese where ever they went.
64. • Arab traders tried to prevent Portuguese trade with local Hindu and Muslim princes.
65. • This resulted in Portugal burning Muslim ships and ransacking the Muslim cities of East Africa as well as torturing prisoners.
66. • In 1509 Portugal appointed Affonso de Albuquerque the governor of their trading posts. He created the basis of a Portuguese trading empire after 6 years.
67. • He captured Ormuz which gave Portugal control of the Indian Ocean.
68. • He captured the narrow Strait of Malacca hoping to prevent other Europeans from reaching the East Indies.
69. • For most of the 1500, the Portuguese controlled the spice trade.
70. • In the late 1500 there was stiff competition between Portugal, France, England and the Netherlands over the spice trade.
71. • The Dutch East India Company was formed 7 years after an exploration in 1595.(1602).
72. • The Dutch attacked Portuguese ships and raided Portuguese trading stations.
73. • During the 1600s the Dutch replaced the Portuguese as the dominant power in the spice trade.
74. • England and France established small outposts along the southern coast of India. They won trading privileges as a result of the weakness of the mogul empire in the south of India as well as the alliances Hindu princes made with Europeans against their Muslim rulers.
75. • The first Portuguese trader met the Chinese merchants at Malacca.
76. • The Ming Chinese permitted only limited trade
77. • In 1542 Portugal came into contact with Japan; this was followed by the Spanish.
78. • Both Chinese and Japanese regarded Europeans as Barbarians.
79. • Chinese and Japanese required guns and few items; they distrusted Europeans having heard stories about Portuguese and Dutch seizing land in the East Indies, the activities of the Jesuits missionaries made them suspect Christians as allies of foreign traders who seized lands.
80. • In Japan, protestant merchants from England and the Netherlands encouraged the shogun’s suspicion of Portuguese and Spanish Catholics.
81. • By 1639 the Japanese expelled all foreigners and permitted only the Dutch once a year to trade at the port of Nagasaki.
82. • Asian rulers often dictated the terms of trade to Europeans as well as limited their movements.
83. • In the Americas, Europeans established colonies that they ruled.
84. • Portugal and Spain where the first establish an empire in the Americas during the early 1500s.
85. • Spanish rulers gave conquistadores or conquerors the right to establish outposts in America.
86. • Conquistadores agreed to give the crown 1/5 of any gold or treasure they discovered.
87. • Conquistadores were successors to the crusading knights who had fought the Muslims in Spain.
88. • In 1519, Hernando Cortes landed on the coast of Mexico in search of gold, he heard about the Aztec Empire and form alliance with various Indian tribes who hated them.
89. • With 400 soldiers and 16 horses he visited the Aztec capital and convinced their leader (Montezuma) to be a subject of Spain.
90. • In 1520, the Aztecs revolted but after a year Cortes and his allies defeated the Aztec capital and the empire collapsed after a few years.
91. • Nine years later Francisco Pizarro and 180 Spanish soldiers landed on the pacific coast. He took advantage of the Inca civil war to capture its ruler Atahualpa and execute many Inca officials.
92. • In 1535, Pizarro controlled most of the huge Inca Empire.
93. • Within 15 years the Aztec and Inca, the two most powerful empires in the Americas had collapse.
94. • REASON; Spain had better weapons( guns, canons), Aztec and India warriors had never seen horses before, some believed the conquistadores on the horse where gods, diseases was also a factor since Europeans could better mange diseases( epidemics of smallpox, chicken pox and measles destroyed entire villages.), many Indians helped the Spanish since they hated their Aztec and Inca rulers.
95. • The Spanish set up a strong centralized gov’t in the Americas that lasted nearly 300 years.
96. • The new lands were divided into 5 provinces, the wealthiest and most powerful being New Spain, Mexico and Peru.
97. • The Spanish king appointed a viceroy in each province as his rep.
98. • The king also formed a council of the Indies, they met in Spain to make rules for the colonies.
99. • Between 1524 and 1630 the council issued over 400,000 orders.
100. • The king supervised local government by appointing members of the cabildo or city council.
101. • The cabildo help spread Spanish civilization
102. By 1550 Mexico City had a public water system, paved and lighted street lights, printing presses and its own university.
103. • The Spanish govt gave settlers encomiendas----the rights to demand taxes or labour from Indians living on the land. This protected India land rights but introduced forced labour.
104. • The discovery of rich silver deposit in Peru and Mexico increased the forced labour, Indians died in cave-ins, mal-nutrition, overwork and disease.
105. • Spanish missionaries condemned the cruel treatment of the Indians and pleaded with the authorities in Madrid to pass laws to protect the Indians.
106. • The Spanish gov’t reacted seriously to this; it believed it had the responsibility to convert Indians to Christianity, it also saw the Indians as loyal subjects, it passed laws in 1542 that forbade making Indians slaves and gave Indians the right to own cattle and raise crops.
107. • Settlers made fortunes from exports; central and South America---Au, Ag, cocoa, coffee and lumber. West Indies---tobacco and sugar cane.
108. • Settlers in West Indies developed the plantation system to profit from sugar cane.
109. • A plantation was a large estate owned by an overseer and farmed on by workers living on it.
110. • Bartolome’ de Las Casas suggested that slaves from Africa were better able to withstand hard labour in the hot climate.
111. • Spain began importing thousands of Africans to the West Indies.
112. • African slaves died as a result of extreme heat below deck, lack of adequate water and food, diseases, attempted revolts.
113. • The middle passage is the voyage across the Atlantic. It lasted two months.
114. • The products of the plantation system of the West Indies and the Au and Ag of the new world made Spain the richest and most powerful nation in Europe.
115. • The Portuguese established their own system of government in Brazil.
116. • The king appointed a captain general to oversee the whole colony.
117. • He also gave loyal subjects large parcels of land.
118. • The donatario or land owner governed the territory he received.
119. • The donatario enlisted settlers to farm or trade on his land.
120. • Thousands of settlers rushed to Brazil in the late 1600s, when Portugal discovered deposits of diamonds and emeralds.
121. • For almost a century Spain and Portugal were the only European powers with colonies in Europe as political troubles and religious wars in Europe distracted other nations
122. • Dutch, French and English sea captains raided Spanish treasure ships sailing from the Caribbean to Spain and seized island in the West Indies.
123. • A few churches set up churches in North America during the early explorations.
124. • Through the Dutch the Netherlands became a powerful commercial nation in the 1500s.
125. • Dutch fought a long battle to gain independence from Spain.
126. • By early 1600, the Dutch were establishing settlements along the Hudson River.
127. • Peter Minuit became the first governor of New Netherlands as the Dutch colony was called.
128. • He bought Manhattan Island from local Indian with cloth and beads.
129. • About 200 Dutch settlers built a village on the island which they named New Amsterdam.
130. • Minuit wanted to attract people to New Netherland by granting large estates to patrons or wealthy landowners.
131. • Patroons brought farmers and labourers to work as tenants on their estates.
132. • They ruled their land like feudal lords. ---own law court to settle local disputes.
133. • When the Dutch West India Company criticized Minuit for giving large powers to patrons he left the new Netherlands and at a Swedish request helped Swedish settlers form a colony on the Delaware River. This was near a Dutch colony.
134. • The Dutch seized this colony in 1655 adding it to the new Netherlands.
135. • The French explored along the St. Lawrence River and built settlements north of the Dutch and Spanish colonies.
136. • Since 1500 the French regularly sailed to the water off Newfoundland to catch cod.
137. • After Cartier’s exploration of St. Lawrence in 1535 France discovered that fur from India where very profitable in Europe.
138. • French monarch took little interest in forming colonies because of political and religious distractions. E.g. Huguenots, French Protestants where forbidden to settle in New France, as they wanted to escape persecution.
139. • A group of traders with exclusive right in the fur trade sent Samuel de Champlain to establish a permanent settlement in Quebec in1608.
140. • France set up forts across the Great Lakes and along the St. Lawrence to protect the fur trade.
141. • Missionaries joined the fur traders wishing to gain convert among North America Indians.
142. • King Louis XVI in the late 1600s appointed his own governor, the Comte de Frontenac to rule New France and also limited the privileges of the fur trading companies.
143. • In 1682, Robert Cavelier sieur de la sale reached the mouth of the Mississippi and claimed the land for France and named the region after Louis xiv.
144. • During the 1600s the English settled in North America.
145. • They founded 13 colonies, some of which (Massachusetts and Virginia) were established by trading companies that received charters from the English government.
146. • Others where proprietary colonies----owned by individuals, usually friends of the king.
147. • The government appointed a royal governor to carry out its policies in each colony; also each colony had an elected assembly that passed local laws.
148. • A governor had to cooperate with the assembly even though he was responsible to parliament.
149. • The assembly approved the governor salaries and consented to laws he issued.
150. • The English government encourage its people to migrate to the new world colonies.
151. • Between 1630 and 1700, the population in English colonies rose from 900 to 200,000.
152. • REASONS; People crossed the Atlantic to English colonies because of religious freedom----the Puritans, persecuted in England for strict Calvinist beliefs founded (Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut). The Quakers settled in Pennsylvania. English Catholics led by Lord Baltimore immigrated to Maryland.
153. • Many settlers hoped to improve their economic and social positions. In colonies they had opportunity to become independent farmers, merchants, fur traders and artisans.
154. • Unlike the French there was strive over land between the native Indians and some settlers which continue until the 1800s.
155. • During the 1600s Spain, France, the Netherlands and England often competed for land in North America; this resulted in clashes between them.
156. • Some European powers sought help from Native Americans, France---Algonquin; Dutch—Iroquois. Fighting between the two meant fighting between two Indian nations.
157. • In 1664, England ousted the Dutch from New Netherland and renamed it New York.
158. • Spain established Florida but couldn’t expand north because the English settled in Georgia and the French, in Louisiana.
159. • 1700s England and France battled for control of Canada and lands west of the Appalachian Mountains.
160. • THE COMMERCIAL REVOLUTION----ECONOMIC RECOVERY.
161. • The economic growth of the late middle ages ended bcos of the Black Death, 1/3 of the population was lost
162. • Population begun to increase in the 1400s
163. • Farmers from the country side moved to cities to work in textile industries.
164. • Growing city population resulted in needed food and landowner’s paid farmers higher wages to prevent migration. Some farmers rented lands on more favourable terms.
165. • In time merchants began work producing manufactured goods in cities. They exported raw materials from colonies and other countries.
166. • THE ENTREPRENUER---merchant—overseas trade----willing to take risk in hope of higher profits.
167. • They turned the economy of Europe from a local to a national and international system.
168. • Some problems they faced were; Robberies, pirates, floods, shipwreck
169. • Merchants reduced risks through insurance, partnerships (share losses and gains), investing in several business.
170. • FINANCING NEW VENTURES.
171. • Merchants needed capital for business and monarchs needed capital for war and overseas trade---they all turned to extremely rich merchant families who became bankers of Europe and gave loans.
172. • Merchants also form joint stock companies that gave out shares to investors, investors shared loses and gains.
173. • Monarchs sometimes issued charters to trading companies giving them exclusive rights to trade in an area.
174. • THE SEARCH FOR GOLD AND SILVER---Europeans didn’t use paper money but Au, Ag, Cu, this was limited in quantity so when commence increased there was shortage of money. The need for Au drove the Spanish, Dutch, French and English to explore new lands.
175. • MERCANTILISM----During 1500, the was believe that precious metal held the key to economic growth. In 1600s a new economic philosophy called mercantilism dev---keeping gold supplies by exporting more than importing. More profit in selling finished prdts than raw materials. Mercantilist stressed that rulers should regulate trade and commence to make a nation self sufficient while supporting key industries and by using colonies as a source of raw material.
176. CHANGING PARTERNS-----gilds regulated production very tightly and cud not meets needs of a growing population, thus entrepreneurs’ dev a system by paying village dwellers to work on raw materials (domestic syst).
177. Also the upper class---Nobles, merchants, bankers built huge palaces decorated with art works, dressed in exotic clothe and ate exotic food
QUESTIONS
1) Locate: East Indies, West Indies, and Line of Demarcation.
2) Identify: Prince Henry the Navigator, Bartholomeu Dias, Christopher Columbus, Treaty of Tordesillas, Amerigo Vespucci, Ferdinand Magellan
3) Define: latitude, astrolabe, longitude.
4) List three technical advances that helped make the voyages of exploration possible.
5) Why were the discoveries of Ponce De Leon and Balboa important to Spain
6) What did Magellan set out to find
7) What countries sent explorers to seek a northwest passage to Asia
8) What areas were explored as a result?
9) Locate: Goa, Malacca, Spice Islands, Macao, Canton, and Nagasaki.
10) Identify: Affonso de Albuquerque.
11) What were the main products Europeans wanted from Asia?
12) What nations competed for trading rights in Asian?
13) What attitude did the rulers of china and Japan have toward European traders?
14) What policy did china and Japan eventually follow toward foreigners?
15) Identify: Hernando Corte’s, Francisco Pizarro, Council of the Indies, Bartolome’ deLas Casas, Middle Passage.
16) Define: conquistador, cabildo, encomienda, plantation, donatorio.
17) What three motives brought the conquistadores to the Americas?
18) List two reasons the Spanish were able to defeat the Aztec and Inca empires with so few soldiers.
19) How did the New Laws of 1542 protect the Indians?
20) Why did Spain begin bringing slaves to the Americas?
21) What discovery in the late 1600s brought many settlers to Brazil?
22) Locate: Newfoundland New France, Louissiana, English colonies.
23) Identify Peter Minuit, Samuel de Champlain, Louis Joliet, and Jacques Marquette.
24) Define: Patroon, proprietary colonies.
25) Why did Spain show little interest in its northern territory?
26) What was the economic basis of New France?
27) What two motives led people to settle in the English colonies?
28) Which two nations were the main rivals in North America in the 1700s
29) Define: entrepreneur, capital, joint-stock company, mercantilism, and domestic system, capitalist.
30) What led to economic recovery in the 1400s
31) What risk did entrepreneurs face, describe on way in which they reduced these risks.
32) Why did the Dutch government give the Dutch East India company exclusive trading rights in the East Indies?
33) How did growing trade with Asia lead to a shortage of gold and silver in Europe?
34) What economic role did mercantilist think colonies should play?
35) Why did guilds become less important?
2.Merchant’s ships transported good along the Mediterranean and Atlantic coasts.
3.Portugal and Spain began searching for new trade routes in the 1400s.
4.They sponsored man voyages of discovery.
5.Advancement in tech helped to make voyages of exploration possible.-----travellers reports as that of Marco Polo, info from Arab geographers, mapmakers had more accurate maps on land and sea, latitudes where included, direction of ocean currents helped navigators.
6.Sailor calculated ships latitude using astrolabe an instrument that measured the position of the stars.
7.At the time there was no instrument to measure longitude, it cud only be estimated
8.Europeans improved the magnetic compass to detect locations even when out of sight of land.
9. “Ocean voyage worthy ships” where built, Portuguese----three masted caravel---carried more sails, had more room for cargo and food supplies.
10.Europeans----Lateen or triangular sail---stern rudder allowed ships to sail closely into the wind. It was borrowed from the Arabs.
11.Because voyages of exploration where very expensive emerging national monarchs sponsored them in the 1400s and 1500s.
12. Through them they hoped to increase trade and build empires.
13.Individuals participated due to curiosity, adventure and wealth. Devout Christians wished to spread the gospel,
14. Portuguese led the way in the voyages o exploration.
15.They had been at a disadvantage in trade with Asia bcos Portugal faced the Atlantic Ocean and not the Mediterranean Sea.
16. Most spices and other goods from India were traded by merchants to the eastern Mediterranean.
17. Portugal’s rulers in the 1400s aimed at increasing the nation’s wealth, they supported voyages in search of AU
18. The wanted to share in the rich spice trade by bypassing the Italian and Muslim middlemen.
19. Prince Henry (1394 to 1460) encouraged early Portuguese explorations. He formed an informal school for sailors at Sagres.
20.There astronomers, geographers and mathematicians shared their learning with Portuguese sea captains and pilots.
21. At first Portuguese attempted creating new trade routes by conquering coastal cities in North Africa, however the Saharan caravan that that brought gold from West Africa stopped.
22. The Portuguese then decided to explore the West African coast for the source of the AU.
23. The sea route along the African coast had been unpopular because ocean currents and winds off cape Bojador often drove ships onto the rocky coast and wrecked them.
24. To avoid this Portuguese discovered a new route west of two grps of islands in the Atlantic---Madeira and Azores
25. From here they got to the south of the African coast safely.
26. The Portuguese searched for Au wherever African rivers ran into the Atlantic, however they could not travel far inland because of waterfall and rapids
27. Portuguese established trade centres along the African coast. They bought Au and Ivory from people living nearby.
28. In 1441 traders began buying slaves.
29. In 1481 King John II launched new efforts in explorations. He wanted to trade directly with Portugal and India.
30. In 1488, Bartholomew Dias arrived at the southern tip of Africa and named it the Cape of storms because was buffeted violently there
31. King John II renamed it the Cape of Good Hope since Dias had found the passage around Africa to India.
32. Under King John, Vasco da Gama in July 1497 set out with four ships from Portugal.
33. He picked an Arab pilot on his way that was helpful in their voyage to India.
34. Da Gama reached the Indian port of Calicut in May 1498.
35. Spain had devoted their energies into conquering the last Muslim Stronghold of Granada.
36. Afterward Spain wanted to profit in the spice trade of Asia.
37.When Ferdinand and Isabella completed the reconquista in 1492 they cud pursue other goals
38. Queen Isabella wished to form alliances with rulers in India and china against the Muslims
39. She believed Christopher Columbus might help Spain achieve this
40. Columbus tried to convince Portugal and then Spain to sponsor a voyage westward across the Atlantic stressing that within 2 months they could reach Asia.
41. Some people like Columbus based their estimation on the size of the earth on Ptolemy work, however Ptolemy had under-estimated the size of the earth
42. Scholars at the university of Salamanca in Spain calculated correctly that the earth was much larger and it would take abt 4 months to reach Asia and ships could not store enough food or fresh water for the journey.
43. Queen Isabella agreed to sponsor Columbus journey. 3 ships, 90 sailors—3/08/1492, left Palos.
44. On 12/10/1492 they sighted land.
45. He sailed to the Caribbean islands of Cuba and Hispaniola, the Dominican Republic and claimed the new lands for Spain by establishing settlements.
46. The Pope arranged a settlement between Portugal and Spain over their claimed of the new lands
47. Spain and Portugal signed the treaty of tordesillas in 1494; this treaty drew a line of demarcation about 1100 miles from north to south. Portugal had the rights over the lands east of the line while Spain rights where over lands west of the line.
48. Further voyages revealed that Columbus had not reached the East Indies but had discovered a huge continent.
49. Amerigo Vespucci an Italian rep for the Medici bank in Spain undertook several voyages for Spain.
50. He charted the coastline of Central America and described it as Mundus Novus a Latin phrase for New World.
51. A German mapmaker labelled the continent America in 1507, in recognition of Amerigo Vespucci
52. In 1513 Juan Ponce de Leon voyaged to find the legendary fountain of youth, he however discovered Florida.
53. Vasco de Balboa discovered the pacific ocean
54. England, the Dutch, Netherlands and France ignored the treaty of Tordesillas as it excluded them.
55. In 1497, John Cabot, an Italian sea captain agreed to sail for England.
56. Martin Frobisher returned to England with a cargo that turn out to be worthless and not gold ore.
57. • Explorers did not find a northern passage to Asia
58. • Their search greatly increased European knowledge of the world.
59. • It contributed to the establishment of new settlements
60. • After Vasco da Gama’s voyage Portuguese could buy spices directly from Asia.
61. • Portugal dominated the spice trade in Europe.
62. • Portugal got pepper from India, cinnamon from Ceylon and cloves and nutmeg from the East Indies.
63. • Missionaries accompanied Portuguese where ever they went.
64. • Arab traders tried to prevent Portuguese trade with local Hindu and Muslim princes.
65. • This resulted in Portugal burning Muslim ships and ransacking the Muslim cities of East Africa as well as torturing prisoners.
66. • In 1509 Portugal appointed Affonso de Albuquerque the governor of their trading posts. He created the basis of a Portuguese trading empire after 6 years.
67. • He captured Ormuz which gave Portugal control of the Indian Ocean.
68. • He captured the narrow Strait of Malacca hoping to prevent other Europeans from reaching the East Indies.
69. • For most of the 1500, the Portuguese controlled the spice trade.
70. • In the late 1500 there was stiff competition between Portugal, France, England and the Netherlands over the spice trade.
71. • The Dutch East India Company was formed 7 years after an exploration in 1595.(1602).
72. • The Dutch attacked Portuguese ships and raided Portuguese trading stations.
73. • During the 1600s the Dutch replaced the Portuguese as the dominant power in the spice trade.
74. • England and France established small outposts along the southern coast of India. They won trading privileges as a result of the weakness of the mogul empire in the south of India as well as the alliances Hindu princes made with Europeans against their Muslim rulers.
75. • The first Portuguese trader met the Chinese merchants at Malacca.
76. • The Ming Chinese permitted only limited trade
77. • In 1542 Portugal came into contact with Japan; this was followed by the Spanish.
78. • Both Chinese and Japanese regarded Europeans as Barbarians.
79. • Chinese and Japanese required guns and few items; they distrusted Europeans having heard stories about Portuguese and Dutch seizing land in the East Indies, the activities of the Jesuits missionaries made them suspect Christians as allies of foreign traders who seized lands.
80. • In Japan, protestant merchants from England and the Netherlands encouraged the shogun’s suspicion of Portuguese and Spanish Catholics.
81. • By 1639 the Japanese expelled all foreigners and permitted only the Dutch once a year to trade at the port of Nagasaki.
82. • Asian rulers often dictated the terms of trade to Europeans as well as limited their movements.
83. • In the Americas, Europeans established colonies that they ruled.
84. • Portugal and Spain where the first establish an empire in the Americas during the early 1500s.
85. • Spanish rulers gave conquistadores or conquerors the right to establish outposts in America.
86. • Conquistadores agreed to give the crown 1/5 of any gold or treasure they discovered.
87. • Conquistadores were successors to the crusading knights who had fought the Muslims in Spain.
88. • In 1519, Hernando Cortes landed on the coast of Mexico in search of gold, he heard about the Aztec Empire and form alliance with various Indian tribes who hated them.
89. • With 400 soldiers and 16 horses he visited the Aztec capital and convinced their leader (Montezuma) to be a subject of Spain.
90. • In 1520, the Aztecs revolted but after a year Cortes and his allies defeated the Aztec capital and the empire collapsed after a few years.
91. • Nine years later Francisco Pizarro and 180 Spanish soldiers landed on the pacific coast. He took advantage of the Inca civil war to capture its ruler Atahualpa and execute many Inca officials.
92. • In 1535, Pizarro controlled most of the huge Inca Empire.
93. • Within 15 years the Aztec and Inca, the two most powerful empires in the Americas had collapse.
94. • REASON; Spain had better weapons( guns, canons), Aztec and India warriors had never seen horses before, some believed the conquistadores on the horse where gods, diseases was also a factor since Europeans could better mange diseases( epidemics of smallpox, chicken pox and measles destroyed entire villages.), many Indians helped the Spanish since they hated their Aztec and Inca rulers.
95. • The Spanish set up a strong centralized gov’t in the Americas that lasted nearly 300 years.
96. • The new lands were divided into 5 provinces, the wealthiest and most powerful being New Spain, Mexico and Peru.
97. • The Spanish king appointed a viceroy in each province as his rep.
98. • The king also formed a council of the Indies, they met in Spain to make rules for the colonies.
99. • Between 1524 and 1630 the council issued over 400,000 orders.
100. • The king supervised local government by appointing members of the cabildo or city council.
101. • The cabildo help spread Spanish civilization
102. By 1550 Mexico City had a public water system, paved and lighted street lights, printing presses and its own university.
103. • The Spanish govt gave settlers encomiendas----the rights to demand taxes or labour from Indians living on the land. This protected India land rights but introduced forced labour.
104. • The discovery of rich silver deposit in Peru and Mexico increased the forced labour, Indians died in cave-ins, mal-nutrition, overwork and disease.
105. • Spanish missionaries condemned the cruel treatment of the Indians and pleaded with the authorities in Madrid to pass laws to protect the Indians.
106. • The Spanish gov’t reacted seriously to this; it believed it had the responsibility to convert Indians to Christianity, it also saw the Indians as loyal subjects, it passed laws in 1542 that forbade making Indians slaves and gave Indians the right to own cattle and raise crops.
107. • Settlers made fortunes from exports; central and South America---Au, Ag, cocoa, coffee and lumber. West Indies---tobacco and sugar cane.
108. • Settlers in West Indies developed the plantation system to profit from sugar cane.
109. • A plantation was a large estate owned by an overseer and farmed on by workers living on it.
110. • Bartolome’ de Las Casas suggested that slaves from Africa were better able to withstand hard labour in the hot climate.
111. • Spain began importing thousands of Africans to the West Indies.
112. • African slaves died as a result of extreme heat below deck, lack of adequate water and food, diseases, attempted revolts.
113. • The middle passage is the voyage across the Atlantic. It lasted two months.
114. • The products of the plantation system of the West Indies and the Au and Ag of the new world made Spain the richest and most powerful nation in Europe.
115. • The Portuguese established their own system of government in Brazil.
116. • The king appointed a captain general to oversee the whole colony.
117. • He also gave loyal subjects large parcels of land.
118. • The donatario or land owner governed the territory he received.
119. • The donatario enlisted settlers to farm or trade on his land.
120. • Thousands of settlers rushed to Brazil in the late 1600s, when Portugal discovered deposits of diamonds and emeralds.
121. • For almost a century Spain and Portugal were the only European powers with colonies in Europe as political troubles and religious wars in Europe distracted other nations
122. • Dutch, French and English sea captains raided Spanish treasure ships sailing from the Caribbean to Spain and seized island in the West Indies.
123. • A few churches set up churches in North America during the early explorations.
124. • Through the Dutch the Netherlands became a powerful commercial nation in the 1500s.
125. • Dutch fought a long battle to gain independence from Spain.
126. • By early 1600, the Dutch were establishing settlements along the Hudson River.
127. • Peter Minuit became the first governor of New Netherlands as the Dutch colony was called.
128. • He bought Manhattan Island from local Indian with cloth and beads.
129. • About 200 Dutch settlers built a village on the island which they named New Amsterdam.
130. • Minuit wanted to attract people to New Netherland by granting large estates to patrons or wealthy landowners.
131. • Patroons brought farmers and labourers to work as tenants on their estates.
132. • They ruled their land like feudal lords. ---own law court to settle local disputes.
133. • When the Dutch West India Company criticized Minuit for giving large powers to patrons he left the new Netherlands and at a Swedish request helped Swedish settlers form a colony on the Delaware River. This was near a Dutch colony.
134. • The Dutch seized this colony in 1655 adding it to the new Netherlands.
135. • The French explored along the St. Lawrence River and built settlements north of the Dutch and Spanish colonies.
136. • Since 1500 the French regularly sailed to the water off Newfoundland to catch cod.
137. • After Cartier’s exploration of St. Lawrence in 1535 France discovered that fur from India where very profitable in Europe.
138. • French monarch took little interest in forming colonies because of political and religious distractions. E.g. Huguenots, French Protestants where forbidden to settle in New France, as they wanted to escape persecution.
139. • A group of traders with exclusive right in the fur trade sent Samuel de Champlain to establish a permanent settlement in Quebec in1608.
140. • France set up forts across the Great Lakes and along the St. Lawrence to protect the fur trade.
141. • Missionaries joined the fur traders wishing to gain convert among North America Indians.
142. • King Louis XVI in the late 1600s appointed his own governor, the Comte de Frontenac to rule New France and also limited the privileges of the fur trading companies.
143. • In 1682, Robert Cavelier sieur de la sale reached the mouth of the Mississippi and claimed the land for France and named the region after Louis xiv.
144. • During the 1600s the English settled in North America.
145. • They founded 13 colonies, some of which (Massachusetts and Virginia) were established by trading companies that received charters from the English government.
146. • Others where proprietary colonies----owned by individuals, usually friends of the king.
147. • The government appointed a royal governor to carry out its policies in each colony; also each colony had an elected assembly that passed local laws.
148. • A governor had to cooperate with the assembly even though he was responsible to parliament.
149. • The assembly approved the governor salaries and consented to laws he issued.
150. • The English government encourage its people to migrate to the new world colonies.
151. • Between 1630 and 1700, the population in English colonies rose from 900 to 200,000.
152. • REASONS; People crossed the Atlantic to English colonies because of religious freedom----the Puritans, persecuted in England for strict Calvinist beliefs founded (Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut). The Quakers settled in Pennsylvania. English Catholics led by Lord Baltimore immigrated to Maryland.
153. • Many settlers hoped to improve their economic and social positions. In colonies they had opportunity to become independent farmers, merchants, fur traders and artisans.
154. • Unlike the French there was strive over land between the native Indians and some settlers which continue until the 1800s.
155. • During the 1600s Spain, France, the Netherlands and England often competed for land in North America; this resulted in clashes between them.
156. • Some European powers sought help from Native Americans, France---Algonquin; Dutch—Iroquois. Fighting between the two meant fighting between two Indian nations.
157. • In 1664, England ousted the Dutch from New Netherland and renamed it New York.
158. • Spain established Florida but couldn’t expand north because the English settled in Georgia and the French, in Louisiana.
159. • 1700s England and France battled for control of Canada and lands west of the Appalachian Mountains.
160. • THE COMMERCIAL REVOLUTION----ECONOMIC RECOVERY.
161. • The economic growth of the late middle ages ended bcos of the Black Death, 1/3 of the population was lost
162. • Population begun to increase in the 1400s
163. • Farmers from the country side moved to cities to work in textile industries.
164. • Growing city population resulted in needed food and landowner’s paid farmers higher wages to prevent migration. Some farmers rented lands on more favourable terms.
165. • In time merchants began work producing manufactured goods in cities. They exported raw materials from colonies and other countries.
166. • THE ENTREPRENUER---merchant—overseas trade----willing to take risk in hope of higher profits.
167. • They turned the economy of Europe from a local to a national and international system.
168. • Some problems they faced were; Robberies, pirates, floods, shipwreck
169. • Merchants reduced risks through insurance, partnerships (share losses and gains), investing in several business.
170. • FINANCING NEW VENTURES.
171. • Merchants needed capital for business and monarchs needed capital for war and overseas trade---they all turned to extremely rich merchant families who became bankers of Europe and gave loans.
172. • Merchants also form joint stock companies that gave out shares to investors, investors shared loses and gains.
173. • Monarchs sometimes issued charters to trading companies giving them exclusive rights to trade in an area.
174. • THE SEARCH FOR GOLD AND SILVER---Europeans didn’t use paper money but Au, Ag, Cu, this was limited in quantity so when commence increased there was shortage of money. The need for Au drove the Spanish, Dutch, French and English to explore new lands.
175. • MERCANTILISM----During 1500, the was believe that precious metal held the key to economic growth. In 1600s a new economic philosophy called mercantilism dev---keeping gold supplies by exporting more than importing. More profit in selling finished prdts than raw materials. Mercantilist stressed that rulers should regulate trade and commence to make a nation self sufficient while supporting key industries and by using colonies as a source of raw material.
176. CHANGING PARTERNS-----gilds regulated production very tightly and cud not meets needs of a growing population, thus entrepreneurs’ dev a system by paying village dwellers to work on raw materials (domestic syst).
177. Also the upper class---Nobles, merchants, bankers built huge palaces decorated with art works, dressed in exotic clothe and ate exotic food
QUESTIONS
1) Locate: East Indies, West Indies, and Line of Demarcation.
2) Identify: Prince Henry the Navigator, Bartholomeu Dias, Christopher Columbus, Treaty of Tordesillas, Amerigo Vespucci, Ferdinand Magellan
3) Define: latitude, astrolabe, longitude.
4) List three technical advances that helped make the voyages of exploration possible.
5) Why were the discoveries of Ponce De Leon and Balboa important to Spain
6) What did Magellan set out to find
7) What countries sent explorers to seek a northwest passage to Asia
8) What areas were explored as a result?
9) Locate: Goa, Malacca, Spice Islands, Macao, Canton, and Nagasaki.
10) Identify: Affonso de Albuquerque.
11) What were the main products Europeans wanted from Asia?
12) What nations competed for trading rights in Asian?
13) What attitude did the rulers of china and Japan have toward European traders?
14) What policy did china and Japan eventually follow toward foreigners?
15) Identify: Hernando Corte’s, Francisco Pizarro, Council of the Indies, Bartolome’ deLas Casas, Middle Passage.
16) Define: conquistador, cabildo, encomienda, plantation, donatorio.
17) What three motives brought the conquistadores to the Americas?
18) List two reasons the Spanish were able to defeat the Aztec and Inca empires with so few soldiers.
19) How did the New Laws of 1542 protect the Indians?
20) Why did Spain begin bringing slaves to the Americas?
21) What discovery in the late 1600s brought many settlers to Brazil?
22) Locate: Newfoundland New France, Louissiana, English colonies.
23) Identify Peter Minuit, Samuel de Champlain, Louis Joliet, and Jacques Marquette.
24) Define: Patroon, proprietary colonies.
25) Why did Spain show little interest in its northern territory?
26) What was the economic basis of New France?
27) What two motives led people to settle in the English colonies?
28) Which two nations were the main rivals in North America in the 1700s
29) Define: entrepreneur, capital, joint-stock company, mercantilism, and domestic system, capitalist.
30) What led to economic recovery in the 1400s
31) What risk did entrepreneurs face, describe on way in which they reduced these risks.
32) Why did the Dutch government give the Dutch East India company exclusive trading rights in the East Indies?
33) How did growing trade with Asia lead to a shortage of gold and silver in Europe?
34) What economic role did mercantilist think colonies should play?
35) Why did guilds become less important?
Free Short Notes on the Emergence of Islam for Exam purpose only
1) Islam begun in the Middle East during the 7th century.
2) Judaism and Christianity also sprang up from the Middle East .
3) Islam developed into an empire after 100 years of its formation
4) Arabia the birthplace of Islam is the largest peninsular in the world
5) The Arabs developed a way of life adapted to desert conditions herding goats and camels
6) Arabs in the desert where loosely organised into tribes with a strong code of honour.
7) Independence of Arabic warriors prevented unity and promoted different feuds
8) Arabia was an important link btw the Mediterranean world, Asia, and the east coast of Africa .
9) Some Arabs where traders who lived along the Red sea .
10) Arabs where in contact with the Greco-Roman world, India , china and Africa thru trade.
11) Mecca
12) Pilgrims travelled to Mecca
13) The Kaaba was a scared shrine that housed all the Arabian gods. It also housed the black stone—probably a meteorite, it was believed to be sent from heaven.
14) Mohammad was born in Mecca
15) His parents died when he was young(6) and he was raised by his relatives.(uncle)
16) Mohammed married Khadija at age 25.
17) Khadija was wealthy widows who run her husband’s business.
18) He became a successful merchant but was troubled by the violence in the world and often with into the desert to pray
19) Mohammed believed that angle Gabriel told him that God had chosen him to be his prophet, and his duty was to proclaim that there was only one God
20) Muhammad and his followers fled Mecca
21) Yathrib was a rival commercial town, later called medina and city of the Prophet.
22) Muslims call Muhammad’s journey from Mecca to Medina
23) The year 622AD was made the first year of the Muslim calendar.
24) Muhammad gained power as both political and religious leader in Medina
25) In 630 Muhammad captured the city of Mecca
26) Muhammad died in 632AD.
27) Islam means submission and Muslims believe that they must submit to the will of Allah.
28) They are five pillars of Islam being duties of faithful Muslims
29) First is the believe in one God Allah, second is duty in prayer-5 times daily, third is alms giving, fourth is fasting during the holy month of Ramadan, fifth is making a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in one’s life time.
30) Islam has no formal church or clergy, an imam leads prayers in a mosque
31) The Koran is a Muslim holy book.
32) The Koran became the instrument for law and government in the Islamic world
33) Arabic is the common language of Muslims since the Koran was written in Arabic.
34) Muhammad accepted old and new testaments as God’s word.
35) He called Jewish and Christians “people of the book”
36) Muslim and Christian common believes,--one God, Judgement day, Abraham, Moses and Jesus where great prophets.
37) Muslims considered Muhammad as God’s final messenger who had the highest authority.
38) Muhammad established rules for ethical behaviour.
39) The Koran gave women a legal, economic status previously not enjoyed in Arabia .
40) Before Muhammad Arabian women had no property rights.
41) The Koran permitted divorce on the grounds that a man returned the woman’s dowry.
42) The Koran forbade killing unwanted baby girls.
43) A woman always had some form of protection and her main duty was to obey her husband, care for the children and manage the household.
44) Between 622 and 732 Islam spread with amazing speed into Palestine , Syria and Spain
45) By 732 Muslim forces crossed the Pyrenees Mountains into southern France Fertile Crescent east Indus valley.
46) Reasons for the spread of Islam, Believe in one God and equality of all believers, they did not need a church or clergy in order to practice their faith, Muhammad and his successors united Arabs and gave them a strong sense of purpose, Arab soldiers believed that if they died fighting for the faith they would immediately enter paradise, weakness of neighbouring Byzantine and Persian empires( successive wars had exhausted them and many people were dissatisfied with their rule, some welcomed the Arabs as liberators
47) When Muslim armies conquered parts of the Byzantine Empire some Christians and Jews and Zoroastrians were ready to accept Islamic teachings.
48) Muslims did not force people to convert.
49) Non Muslims paid a special tax and could worship as they choose.
50) Muslim conquers where not anxious to convert people as it would reduce revenue.
51) Abu Bakr succeeded Prophet Mohammad after his death.
52) A caliph acted as both political and religious leader and used the Koran to rule.
53) Power struggles involved the election of the first four caliphs after which a leading family in Mecca
54) They made Damascus in Syria
55) Mecca
56) Under the Umayyad, Arabs absorbed ideas from Hellenistic and Byzantine civilizations.
57) Some people begun to assert independence in the empire, competing branches developed—Sunnite, Shiite.
58) The Sunnite and Shiite differed over who was rightful successor to Muhammad.
59) The numerous Sunnites supported the Umayyad caliph while the Shiites support a religious leader who traced his ancestry back to Ali, Muhammad’s son in law.
60) Shiites broke into many groups and rallied support among people discontented with Arab rule.
61) In 750 the Abbasids overthrew the Umayyad. However a member of the Umayyad dynasty made himself caliph in Spain North Africa also remains outside Abbasids rule.
62) Abbasid rulers built a new capital in Baghdad
63) In the 700’s under Harun al Rashid, the Islamic Empire enjoyed a golden age.
64) Abbasid rulers left the business of govt to corrupt officials, after 1000 yrs the empire was fragmented.
65) In the 11 cent the Seljuk Turks invaded the Islamic Empire, they converted to Islam but had different traditions from those of Arabs.
66) The rule of Seljuk’s in Palestine
67) In 1258 the Mongols destroyed Baghdad
68) The ottoman Turks reunited Egypt , Syria Iraq and Arabia into an Islamic state to defeat the Mongols. It lasted until 1918.
69) Muslims blended Greek, Roman, Byzantine, Persian and Indian cultures to form theirs.
70) Muslim merchants handled the products of three continents---Africa, Asia and Europe .
71) The Abbasid capital boasted hospitals, libraries, palaces, public gardens and street lights.
72) Arabs introduced letter of credit in place of cash.
73) They issued receipts for payment and bills of lading that listed all goods in a shipment.
74) Steel was used in swords and textiles as cotton, gauze and satin where very impt.
75) Commence, manufacture, Agriculture---improvement lead to production of more food to feed large city populations.
76) The Koran was the focus of Muslim scholars and legal interpretation where made from it which became law codes.
77) Islamic law, common beliefs and the use of Arabic helped unite Muslims on three continents.
78) In Centres of learning such as the house of Wisdom in Baghdad Muslims learnt Roman, Jewish, Persian and Indian texts
79) Guided by ancient Greek texts, Muslim doctors perfected in techniques for diagnosing and treating diseases.
80) In the 9th cent Muhammad al-Razi published a huge medical encyclopaedia called “the comprehensive work in Medicine”. In it he detailed the symptoms of such contagious diseases as smallpox and measles.
81) Muslims has an advanced system of medical training which include qualifying examination doctors and pharmacists.
82) Muslim mathematician adopted the decimal system and the system of numeral from India
83) With the decimal system Muslims made advancement in algebra and trigonometry.
84) Muslim alchemists advanced the science of chemistry. They invented equipment such as beakers and crystallizing dishes.
85) One Muslim scientist proposed that the earth was round and accurately estimated its circumference. He also suggested that the earth rotated on its axis
86) Muslims invented the Mariner’s compass by using magnetic chine needles.
87) The astrolabe was another Muslim invention.
88) Muslims put up mosques in architectural form having a blend of Roman, Byzantine and Persian styles. Towers outside the mosques are referred to as Minarets.
89) Averroes a Spanish Muslim tried to reconcile the teachings of Aristotle with Islam.
90) Poets held an honoured place in the Islamic world.
91) CIVILISATION----ECONOMIC PROSPERITY, TRADITIONAL LEARNING, ACHIEVEMENTS IN MEDICINE, MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE, ARTS AND LITERATURE.
92) Avicenna was born in 980 near bukkara in Persia
93) He learned the Koran and mastered geometry, logic, law and Arabic literature.
94) He taught himself physics, theology, mathematics, astronomy, philosophy and medicine.
95) He was a successful physician at age 16; he treated Persian nobles, chief ministers, rulers.
96) He wrote over 100 books on astronomy, music, philosophy, medicine and poetry.
97) His book on philosophy reflected teachings of Aristotle and Plato
98) His major work was “the Canon of Medicine” translated into Latin in 1100
99) It remained the leading textbook among Muslims and Christians for about 600 yrs.
100) He explained how disease could be spread by contaminated water bodies
101) He studied over 750 medical remedies and published the first handbook that told physicians the remedies for different diseases.
QUESTIONS
1) Locate: Arabia, Mecca , Medina , Damascus , and Baghdad
2) Identify: Kaaba, Muhammad, Koran, People of the Book, Sunnite, Shiite
3) Define: hejira, mosque, caliph
4) Describe the five pillars of Islam
5) Give one example of how the Koran improved the position of the Arab women.
6) List two reasons for the rapid spread of lslam
7) When did the Islamic empire enjoy its golden age?
8) Identify: Muhammad al-Razum, Averroes, Omar Khayya
9) Define: minaret
10) What commercial practices did the Arabs develop?
11) How did the Arabs preserve much ancient learning?
12) Describe one contribution Muslims made to medicine.
Saturday, April 5, 2008
Free Short Notes on the Scientific Evoloution and the Enlightenment for Exam purpose only
1) In 1671 Anton van Leeuwenhoek a Dutch cloth merchant constructed a microscope out of a magnifying glass and a specimen holder.
2) He began using the microscope to observe everyday objects as pepper, plant seeds and his own skin.
3) He observed water under his microscope and made the first discovery of single- cell living organisms.
4) As Leeuwenhoek and other scientist studied his discovery they had to discard long held ideas about biology.
5) During the 1500s and 1600s the microscope and numerous discoveries transformed the natural science and medicine as new tech and research resulted in vast knowledge.
6) This became known as the scientific revolution.
7) Philosophers applied scientific principles to the study of government and society.
8) They also emphasized the use of reason in the 2nd half of the 1700s.
9) They thought people should use reason to be enlightened and free themselves from ignorance and superstition.
10) They believed enlightened people could perfect themselves and society.
11) Due to this the 18 century is known as the Enlightenment.
12) During the renaissance a few people where curious to study the natural world.
13) Leonardo da Vinci detailed his scientific observation in a note book. (Flying machine, bicycle.)
14) By the late Renaissance scholars greatly expanded scientific knowledge and dev new approach to scientific study.
15) Aristotle a Greek Philosopher created logic. It dominated scientific reasoning in the middle ages.
16) Logic is a system of thought based on observation and a process of reasoning.
17) Between 1200 and 1700 scholars question ancient philosophies while some made observations and conducted experiments that disproved some accepted theories.
18) Mathematics was advanced by using Arabic numerals and it exposed errors in logic.
19) Gradually scholars dev a threefold to scientific study---the scientific method.
20) Experiments and observation----interpret the results----mathematics not logic is used to prove scientific theories from principles.
21) Nicolas Copernicus was a polish mathematician and astronomer.
22) In 1543 he published “on the revolutions of the Heavenly bodies” to challenge Ptolemy.
23) Ptolemy taught that the earth was the center of the universe and all heavenly bodies orbited it in perfect circles,
24) Copernicus used mathematics to calculate that the earth was not stationary but moved on its axis once a day.
25) He declared that the sun was at the center of the universe being orbited by the earth and planets in perfect circles.
26) Many educated people rejected his view because he did not have enough evidence to disprove Ptolemy.
27) In Western Europe all scientific knowledge and many religious teaching was based on logical arguments.
28) Scholars feared the whole human knowledge would become uncertain if their reasoning about the planets were wrong.
29) Scientists increasingly backed observations with mathematical calculation after Corperniculus.
30) Tycho Brahe a Danish astronomer built an observatory to study the planets in the late 1500s.
31) His assistant Johannes Kepler used their records to confirm Copernicus theories.
32) Kepler discovered that the planets did not orbit the sun in perfect circles.
33) In 1609 Kepler announced that planets orbited the sun in an ellipse.
34) In Italy, Galileo Galilee an astronomer used a telescope to observe the planets and stars.
35) Galileo’s observations disproved that the moon, planets and stars were all perfect, unchanging bodies.
36) The moon had a rough surface broken by a jagged mountain.
37) The sun had dark, changeable spots on its surface.
38) Jupiter had 4 moons orbiting it.
39) Galileo’s enemies convinced the Catholic Church to ban him from defending his new ideas and also condemn the work of Copernicus.
40) Galileo refused and was summoned by an inquiry.
41) Galileo declared that the earth stood motionless at the center of the universe before an inquisition out of fear for his life.
42) In 1687, Sir Isaac Newton an English mathematician published, “The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy” and invented calculus to prove his theories.
43) Newton’s law of gravity states that there is a force of attraction between objects that increases as the objects get closer.
44) Newton’s law of gravity explains that the moons gravity causes tides of the sea while that of the sun keeps the planet within their orbits.
45) Navigators and map makers used Newton’s works to make more precise charts.
46) Calculus was used to improved weapons such as guns and cannons.
47) The stream engine was built based on Newton’s idea years later.
48) During the 1500s and 1600s significant advances in medicine where made by scientist.
49) Some challenged the theories of Galen, a Greek physician whose work had dominated medicine in the middle age.
50) In the early 1500s, a Swiss physician, Paracelsus disproved Galen’s idea that chemicals change---one substance can be transformed into another.
51) He produced distilled water that he used as medicine.
52) Scholars studied the human body at the University of Padua in Italy.
53) In 1543, Andreas Vesalius, a professor of anatomy wrote “on the structure of the Human Body”
54) His accurate drawings corrected the errors in Galen’s work.
55) Traditionally doctors poured boiling oil into a wound to prevent it from infection. Ambroise pare’ dev an ointment that cud be used instead. He had formerly studied Vesalius’s textbook.
56) He developed a technique of closing up wounds with stitches.
57) In the early 1600s, William Harvey an Englishman showed that the heart acted as a pump to circulate blood through arteries and veins.
58) Formerly it was thought that the blood remain stationary.
59) In the 1700s doctors discovered the vaccine for small pox.
60) Scientific association where formed to exchange scientific knowledge.
61) Late 1600 and the 1700s is referred to us the age of reason.
62) Because Philosophers wanted to use reasons to discover natural laws that governed human behavior.
63) Philosophers reexamine society using the scientific method.
64) The 1640 English civil war lead Thomas Hobbes to publish “Leviathan” in 1651 when he came to the conclusion that people would have nasty, brutish and short life’s with no laws or government in a natural state.
65) To prevent this people had to enter into agreement with a leader---they gave up their freedoms and pledge to obedience while the ruler ensured peace and order.
66) A ruler with absolute power was the best form of government.
67) He insisted that once people entered a contract they could not rebel even if the ruler was a tyrant.
68) John Locke published Two Treatises on government in 1690.
69) He confirmed the purpose of gov’t to ensure order in society.
70) He also saw gov’t as a contract between the ruler and the ruled.
71) He thought people would cooperate with each other as they were basically reasonable.
72) Also rulers’ cud remain in power only by the consent of the people.
73) If a ruler was tyrannical he had broken the contract and thus the people cud forms a new government.
74) Also people had natural rights which a government had to protect---right to life, liberty and property.
75) Philosophes (French word for Philosopher) where writers and thinkers in France that expanded the idea of natural rights.
76) They urge religious toleration, freedom of speech and press, educations and humane treatment for the mentally ill.
77) They denounced slavery and cruel punishments for crimes
78) Physiocrats; a branch of philosophes searched for natural laws to explain economics
79) They opposed mercantilism, urged rulers to encourage farming and called for a free market; a market in which all goods can be bought and sold without restrictions.
80) Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Roseau formed their own ideas about the best way to organize a government.
81) They shared the basic beliefs of the Philosophes.
82) As a noble born, student of gov’t Baron de Montesquieu studied the works of Newton and Locke.
83) He published “The Spirit of laws” to discuss forms of government.
84) He discussed the structure of the English government in the mid 1700s as having an executive, legislature and Judiciary with their respective duties. This was not so in reality.
85) He thought that the jurisdiction of each branch should be carefully defined to ensure checks and balance.
86) His separation of powers influenced the constitution frames of the United States constitution.
87) Francois Marie Arouet( penname—Voltaire) was a middle class man known for his witty plays, novels and pamphlets attacking evil in society.
88) He fought for religious toleration and freedom of thought and praised English liberties and the works of Newton and Locke.
89) He favoured an “enlightened Monarch” to him---a monarch who studied the science of gov’t and protected the basic rights (natural rights) of people.
90) Jean Jacques Rousseau came from a poor unhappy home.
91) He quarrelled with other philosophes as he fell out of place with them.
92) He believed human nature was basically good only being corrupted by society.
93) He called for the abolishment of all titles, ranks and nobility as all people where equal.
94) He admired the “noble savage” who lived in a natural state free from the influences of civilisation. He realized that people cud not return to the natural state.
95) He described an ideal society in “The Social Contract”
96) People would form communities and make a contract with each other and not a ruler. People gave up their freedoms for the general will and accepted the decision of the community after a vote. Equality in the will of the majority.
97) In the mid 1700s enlighten ideas spread across Europe as philosophers travelled and corresponded with each other and European rulers, their ideas became more generally accepted.
98) Denis Diderot a French philosophe supervised the publication of an encyclopaedia—classified dictionary of the Sciences, Arts and Occupations--- that summarized human knowledge of his time.
99) Between 1751 –1772, he assembled the 35 volume encyclopaedia hoping it would free people from prejudice.
100) Voltaire, Montesquieu, Rousseau and other philosphes contributed articles while others wrote on newly explored lands.
101) Diagrams where used to show advancement in printing, spinning, medicine and other fields.
102) In France, the Catholic Church and government censors banned the Encyclopaedia; it was read by educated people across Europe.
103) More news papers and journal where published in the 1700s as more people cud read and write.
104) Learn societies organized public lectures and published reports.
105) Middle class men met in coffee shops to discuss latest news in science and politics.
106) Popular songs helped spread enlightenment ideas.
107) Wealthy women in France held salons or informal gatherings, where writers, musician, painters and philosophes present their works and exchanged ideas.
108) Salons begun in the 1600s when a group of noble women met to discuss poetry readings, only witty, intelligent and well read people where invited.
109) Madame de Geoffrins a middle class woman is noted for holding salons at least once a week.
110) Salons helped shaped the taste and manners of enlightenment.
111) Some women acted as patrons for artists and writers. Louise de Warens supported Rousseau and his family.
112) Many women produced their own poetry and novels.
113) A few had an education in Science. Emilie du Chatetlet---physicist and mathematician. She translated Newton’s work from Latin to French.
114) Some rulers adopted policies and economic conditions in their countries hoping to improve socio-economic conditions.
115) The used such ideas to centralize power and reduce the privileges of nobles.
116) In Austria, Maria Theresa passed laws to limit serfdom, while her son Joseph abolished serfdom.
117) He permitted freedom of the press, banned torture and ended religious persecution.
118) He gave equal rights to Jews and limited the power of the Catholic Church.
119) His successors reversed his reform after his death in 1790.
120) Most enlighten monarchs did nothing to change the social structure based on inequality and serfdom.
121) Catherine the Great of Russia made efforts to limit torture and introduce religious toleration.
122) Frederick the Great of Prussia codified Prussian laws, allowed religious freedom and encouraged elementary education for Prussian children.
123) Artists tried to find laws that gave order to their work. They were influenced by classical Greek art.
124) Classical styles also influenced European architecture. In the 1600s building where ornate and elaborate, in the 1700s architects returned to the simple elegance of Greek styles.
125) Two Germans among the most important composers of the enlightened period where, Johann Sebastian Bach and George Frederick Handel.
126) Franz Joseph Haydn and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart brought music to its height in the late 1700s.
127) Mozart wrote more than 600 musical works---symphonies, operas and church music--- before his death at age 35.
QUESTIONS
1) Identify: Nicolas Copernicus, Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler, and Galileo Galilee.
2) Define: Scientific method, law of gravity.
3) Why was mathematics important to the scientific method?
4) Give two reasons why scholars challenged the ideas of Copernicus.
5) What did Galileo’s observations through the telescope reveal?
6) How did Newton think the universe worked?
7) Describe on way each of the following contributed to medical knowledge: Paracelsus, Andreas Vesalius, and Amboise Pare’, William Harvey.
8) Identify: Denis Diderot, Joseph II, Johann Sebastian Bach, and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart.
9) Define: Salon
10) What subjects did Diderot’s Encyclopaedia emphasize the most?
11) Describe three reforms introduced by enlightened Monarchs.
2) He began using the microscope to observe everyday objects as pepper, plant seeds and his own skin.
3) He observed water under his microscope and made the first discovery of single- cell living organisms.
4) As Leeuwenhoek and other scientist studied his discovery they had to discard long held ideas about biology.
5) During the 1500s and 1600s the microscope and numerous discoveries transformed the natural science and medicine as new tech and research resulted in vast knowledge.
6) This became known as the scientific revolution.
7) Philosophers applied scientific principles to the study of government and society.
8) They also emphasized the use of reason in the 2nd half of the 1700s.
9) They thought people should use reason to be enlightened and free themselves from ignorance and superstition.
10) They believed enlightened people could perfect themselves and society.
11) Due to this the 18 century is known as the Enlightenment.
12) During the renaissance a few people where curious to study the natural world.
13) Leonardo da Vinci detailed his scientific observation in a note book. (Flying machine, bicycle.)
14) By the late Renaissance scholars greatly expanded scientific knowledge and dev new approach to scientific study.
15) Aristotle a Greek Philosopher created logic. It dominated scientific reasoning in the middle ages.
16) Logic is a system of thought based on observation and a process of reasoning.
17) Between 1200 and 1700 scholars question ancient philosophies while some made observations and conducted experiments that disproved some accepted theories.
18) Mathematics was advanced by using Arabic numerals and it exposed errors in logic.
19) Gradually scholars dev a threefold to scientific study---the scientific method.
20) Experiments and observation----interpret the results----mathematics not logic is used to prove scientific theories from principles.
21) Nicolas Copernicus was a polish mathematician and astronomer.
22) In 1543 he published “on the revolutions of the Heavenly bodies” to challenge Ptolemy.
23) Ptolemy taught that the earth was the center of the universe and all heavenly bodies orbited it in perfect circles,
24) Copernicus used mathematics to calculate that the earth was not stationary but moved on its axis once a day.
25) He declared that the sun was at the center of the universe being orbited by the earth and planets in perfect circles.
26) Many educated people rejected his view because he did not have enough evidence to disprove Ptolemy.
27) In Western Europe all scientific knowledge and many religious teaching was based on logical arguments.
28) Scholars feared the whole human knowledge would become uncertain if their reasoning about the planets were wrong.
29) Scientists increasingly backed observations with mathematical calculation after Corperniculus.
30) Tycho Brahe a Danish astronomer built an observatory to study the planets in the late 1500s.
31) His assistant Johannes Kepler used their records to confirm Copernicus theories.
32) Kepler discovered that the planets did not orbit the sun in perfect circles.
33) In 1609 Kepler announced that planets orbited the sun in an ellipse.
34) In Italy, Galileo Galilee an astronomer used a telescope to observe the planets and stars.
35) Galileo’s observations disproved that the moon, planets and stars were all perfect, unchanging bodies.
36) The moon had a rough surface broken by a jagged mountain.
37) The sun had dark, changeable spots on its surface.
38) Jupiter had 4 moons orbiting it.
39) Galileo’s enemies convinced the Catholic Church to ban him from defending his new ideas and also condemn the work of Copernicus.
40) Galileo refused and was summoned by an inquiry.
41) Galileo declared that the earth stood motionless at the center of the universe before an inquisition out of fear for his life.
42) In 1687, Sir Isaac Newton an English mathematician published, “The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy” and invented calculus to prove his theories.
43) Newton’s law of gravity states that there is a force of attraction between objects that increases as the objects get closer.
44) Newton’s law of gravity explains that the moons gravity causes tides of the sea while that of the sun keeps the planet within their orbits.
45) Navigators and map makers used Newton’s works to make more precise charts.
46) Calculus was used to improved weapons such as guns and cannons.
47) The stream engine was built based on Newton’s idea years later.
48) During the 1500s and 1600s significant advances in medicine where made by scientist.
49) Some challenged the theories of Galen, a Greek physician whose work had dominated medicine in the middle age.
50) In the early 1500s, a Swiss physician, Paracelsus disproved Galen’s idea that chemicals change---one substance can be transformed into another.
51) He produced distilled water that he used as medicine.
52) Scholars studied the human body at the University of Padua in Italy.
53) In 1543, Andreas Vesalius, a professor of anatomy wrote “on the structure of the Human Body”
54) His accurate drawings corrected the errors in Galen’s work.
55) Traditionally doctors poured boiling oil into a wound to prevent it from infection. Ambroise pare’ dev an ointment that cud be used instead. He had formerly studied Vesalius’s textbook.
56) He developed a technique of closing up wounds with stitches.
57) In the early 1600s, William Harvey an Englishman showed that the heart acted as a pump to circulate blood through arteries and veins.
58) Formerly it was thought that the blood remain stationary.
59) In the 1700s doctors discovered the vaccine for small pox.
60) Scientific association where formed to exchange scientific knowledge.
61) Late 1600 and the 1700s is referred to us the age of reason.
62) Because Philosophers wanted to use reasons to discover natural laws that governed human behavior.
63) Philosophers reexamine society using the scientific method.
64) The 1640 English civil war lead Thomas Hobbes to publish “Leviathan” in 1651 when he came to the conclusion that people would have nasty, brutish and short life’s with no laws or government in a natural state.
65) To prevent this people had to enter into agreement with a leader---they gave up their freedoms and pledge to obedience while the ruler ensured peace and order.
66) A ruler with absolute power was the best form of government.
67) He insisted that once people entered a contract they could not rebel even if the ruler was a tyrant.
68) John Locke published Two Treatises on government in 1690.
69) He confirmed the purpose of gov’t to ensure order in society.
70) He also saw gov’t as a contract between the ruler and the ruled.
71) He thought people would cooperate with each other as they were basically reasonable.
72) Also rulers’ cud remain in power only by the consent of the people.
73) If a ruler was tyrannical he had broken the contract and thus the people cud forms a new government.
74) Also people had natural rights which a government had to protect---right to life, liberty and property.
75) Philosophes (French word for Philosopher) where writers and thinkers in France that expanded the idea of natural rights.
76) They urge religious toleration, freedom of speech and press, educations and humane treatment for the mentally ill.
77) They denounced slavery and cruel punishments for crimes
78) Physiocrats; a branch of philosophes searched for natural laws to explain economics
79) They opposed mercantilism, urged rulers to encourage farming and called for a free market; a market in which all goods can be bought and sold without restrictions.
80) Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Roseau formed their own ideas about the best way to organize a government.
81) They shared the basic beliefs of the Philosophes.
82) As a noble born, student of gov’t Baron de Montesquieu studied the works of Newton and Locke.
83) He published “The Spirit of laws” to discuss forms of government.
84) He discussed the structure of the English government in the mid 1700s as having an executive, legislature and Judiciary with their respective duties. This was not so in reality.
85) He thought that the jurisdiction of each branch should be carefully defined to ensure checks and balance.
86) His separation of powers influenced the constitution frames of the United States constitution.
87) Francois Marie Arouet( penname—Voltaire) was a middle class man known for his witty plays, novels and pamphlets attacking evil in society.
88) He fought for religious toleration and freedom of thought and praised English liberties and the works of Newton and Locke.
89) He favoured an “enlightened Monarch” to him---a monarch who studied the science of gov’t and protected the basic rights (natural rights) of people.
90) Jean Jacques Rousseau came from a poor unhappy home.
91) He quarrelled with other philosophes as he fell out of place with them.
92) He believed human nature was basically good only being corrupted by society.
93) He called for the abolishment of all titles, ranks and nobility as all people where equal.
94) He admired the “noble savage” who lived in a natural state free from the influences of civilisation. He realized that people cud not return to the natural state.
95) He described an ideal society in “The Social Contract”
96) People would form communities and make a contract with each other and not a ruler. People gave up their freedoms for the general will and accepted the decision of the community after a vote. Equality in the will of the majority.
97) In the mid 1700s enlighten ideas spread across Europe as philosophers travelled and corresponded with each other and European rulers, their ideas became more generally accepted.
98) Denis Diderot a French philosophe supervised the publication of an encyclopaedia—classified dictionary of the Sciences, Arts and Occupations--- that summarized human knowledge of his time.
99) Between 1751 –1772, he assembled the 35 volume encyclopaedia hoping it would free people from prejudice.
100) Voltaire, Montesquieu, Rousseau and other philosphes contributed articles while others wrote on newly explored lands.
101) Diagrams where used to show advancement in printing, spinning, medicine and other fields.
102) In France, the Catholic Church and government censors banned the Encyclopaedia; it was read by educated people across Europe.
103) More news papers and journal where published in the 1700s as more people cud read and write.
104) Learn societies organized public lectures and published reports.
105) Middle class men met in coffee shops to discuss latest news in science and politics.
106) Popular songs helped spread enlightenment ideas.
107) Wealthy women in France held salons or informal gatherings, where writers, musician, painters and philosophes present their works and exchanged ideas.
108) Salons begun in the 1600s when a group of noble women met to discuss poetry readings, only witty, intelligent and well read people where invited.
109) Madame de Geoffrins a middle class woman is noted for holding salons at least once a week.
110) Salons helped shaped the taste and manners of enlightenment.
111) Some women acted as patrons for artists and writers. Louise de Warens supported Rousseau and his family.
112) Many women produced their own poetry and novels.
113) A few had an education in Science. Emilie du Chatetlet---physicist and mathematician. She translated Newton’s work from Latin to French.
114) Some rulers adopted policies and economic conditions in their countries hoping to improve socio-economic conditions.
115) The used such ideas to centralize power and reduce the privileges of nobles.
116) In Austria, Maria Theresa passed laws to limit serfdom, while her son Joseph abolished serfdom.
117) He permitted freedom of the press, banned torture and ended religious persecution.
118) He gave equal rights to Jews and limited the power of the Catholic Church.
119) His successors reversed his reform after his death in 1790.
120) Most enlighten monarchs did nothing to change the social structure based on inequality and serfdom.
121) Catherine the Great of Russia made efforts to limit torture and introduce religious toleration.
122) Frederick the Great of Prussia codified Prussian laws, allowed religious freedom and encouraged elementary education for Prussian children.
123) Artists tried to find laws that gave order to their work. They were influenced by classical Greek art.
124) Classical styles also influenced European architecture. In the 1600s building where ornate and elaborate, in the 1700s architects returned to the simple elegance of Greek styles.
125) Two Germans among the most important composers of the enlightened period where, Johann Sebastian Bach and George Frederick Handel.
126) Franz Joseph Haydn and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart brought music to its height in the late 1700s.
127) Mozart wrote more than 600 musical works---symphonies, operas and church music--- before his death at age 35.
QUESTIONS
1) Identify: Nicolas Copernicus, Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler, and Galileo Galilee.
2) Define: Scientific method, law of gravity.
3) Why was mathematics important to the scientific method?
4) Give two reasons why scholars challenged the ideas of Copernicus.
5) What did Galileo’s observations through the telescope reveal?
6) How did Newton think the universe worked?
7) Describe on way each of the following contributed to medical knowledge: Paracelsus, Andreas Vesalius, and Amboise Pare’, William Harvey.
8) Identify: Denis Diderot, Joseph II, Johann Sebastian Bach, and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart.
9) Define: Salon
10) What subjects did Diderot’s Encyclopaedia emphasize the most?
11) Describe three reforms introduced by enlightened Monarchs.
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